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STANFORD
LIBRARIES

Moral Significance of Animals
as Indicated in Greek Proverbs

HERBERT PIERREPONT HOUGHTON

Dissertation

SUBMITTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE

Johns Hopkins University

IN accordance with the requirements for THE DECREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy

Amherst, Mass.
Carpenter & Morehouse

222497

MEIS • PARENTIBVS • CARIS

CONTE^

The Study of Greek Proverbs,

ITS

Page.
3

Major Animals in Greek Proverbs,

A«

'AXiain)i,

Bovs,

^Ithtos,

KdfM^Xo^y

Kviov,

Aaycus,

AcoiVy

AVKOS,

''0V05,

Minor Animals in the Proverbs,

Birds in the Proverbs,

Reptiles and Insects,

ei 8c Tis oXj^os €v dvOptavoKnv^ av€v KajJLarov
ov <f>a(v€Tac

—Pindar, />M. XII, 28-29.

THE STUDY OF GREEK PlIOVERBS

Survivals of folklore in Greek may be grouped under four princi-*
pal literary types. These are : alvo^, Xoyos, fivOos and wapoifiia.
They are closely related, and though capable of being differentiated,
are nevertheless inclined to overlap in definition. They differ widely
from all other literary types, with the exception of the epigram, in
their tendency towards conciseness or compactness of expression.
They differ in this respect, too, from each other ; the fable, aJvoSf
sometimes being of considerable length, the proverb, wapoifiia, being
at times a single word.

AtKos is the oldest word for fable* and was adopted as the proper
designation of this literary form.* Diogenianus, in his introduction
irepl irapoLfUwv^ defines a?vos as follows : A?vos ficv ovv iarl Kar dva-
irXaaiv p.vOiKrjv dva^cpd/jicvos dwo iXoymv ^tatav rj <l>vT<av iirl avBpiainav
TrapaCv€cnv. A fable, then, by this definition, presupposes acquaint-
ance with the animal kingdom. Fable very early came to be asso-
ciated with animal instinct and animal cleverness. The oldest fables
may have originated in prehistoric times when man and the animals
were more closely allied. The Cyclops* talking fondly to his favorite
ram reflects those times and conditions. Diogenianus cites as an ex-
ple of oTkos an atvos dwo fwwK, from Archilochos.* Alvos is poetic and
Ionic in its usage.

As early as Pindar* the word Xoyo? came to have the meaning :
story, tale or narrative.' In the phrases Xdyos co-n and X. <^e/ocrai the
word has the significance of story or report. It is distinguished from
alvos as narrative (authentic) is distinguished from legend (tradi-
tional). It is not limited in its range like alvos) but is the all-embrac-
ing word for story concerning animal, person or thing. Plato^ em-
ploys the word Xdyos with reference to the fables of Aesop ; with
Herodotos* and Thukydides*®, while distinct from fable, Xdyos does
not denote lo-ropia.

The fictitious is implied in p,v9o^ ; it is not used with reference to
that which is accurate or trustworthy from the time of Pindar. It is

« Archil, fr. 86 and fr. 89. 6 ^^»,. 9. 6.

» Quintil. Inst, orat. V, 11, 20. ^ Cf. Aesch. Se^. 218 ; Herodot. 1. 184.

3 Cor^. Paroem, 1. 177 f. * ApoL 26. D. cf. Plat. Phaedo 60 D; 61 B

4 Horn. Od, IX. 447 1 9 II. 47. 99.
i fr. 81. HiUer. » VI 46.

eommonly employed in Greek literature to denote a story or legend
the origin of which harks back to prehistory.* This word also is
used of fable ; hence our present acceptation of the word myth as
connoting the fictitious. While, therefore, the three words are almost
synonyms, the animal fable, specifically, which treats of the habits of
animals as applied metaphorically to man, is the atvo$.

Uapoifiia is distinct from the folklore forms, oTvos, Xoyos, fivOo^, and
yet it is often a product or offshoot of one or all of them. It is the
generic term for proverb, maxim or adage.* Eustathius,' defines a
fable as iirprXiDfihnff wapoifua, an unfolded proverb. This would mean
that the expanding of the proverb gives rise to the fable, whereas so
many proverbs are directly, or indirectly, traceable to afvos that a
proverb should more naturally be defined as a compressed fable, in
like manner as a metaphor is an implied or compressed simile. As
the simile exists before the metaphor, so the fable is older than the
proverb. A proverb is often only an implication or a suggestion ;
two words in crystallized group express in compact form the kernel
of some well known animal fable. Diogenianus* defines the proverb
as a form of similitude or allegory ; "Enoi 8c <^(n irpotnjyopaicrOai ra$
irapoi/JLia^ dwo tov op.oi.6v ti i^' ols Xcyovreu hnqkclvv Trapoip.ia^ rvyxavowra^.
*Eo-Ti 8c wapoip.Ca rpovos Koi rr}^ KaX,ovp.€vrf^ dXXrjyopw. This IS es-
pecially true of animal proverbs. As the alvos is usually the animal
fable it is the chief source of the 7ra/ooi/ua, involving metaphorical
usage of animal traits. As mentioned above, two or three words serve
to recall a reference to a particular fable, as for example : Kvmv iv
<^aTV2jt The tendency to omit the copula is characteristic of pregnant
sayings in Greek ; when the definite article appears it usually has
deictic force.* Juxtaposition of types is in itself sufficient to make a
proverb. A wapotfwa, then, employing animal metaphor, is a lacon-
ized fable, a story in miniature or by suggestion. It is characteristic
of the Greek to make use of such compact phrases ; this is clear from
a reading of the Early Comedy in which the language of every-day
life and of the average man has free play. As in our modem life, it
was the commonplace people who most readily acquired and used
proverbial sayings. So the maxims of Epicharmos of Cos, the first
writer of mimes, early became household bywords and have remained

» Of. Plat. De Rep, 330 D; 377 A.

> Compare the use of the word Adagia by Erasmus for all sayings of this sort.

3 ad Horn. II. 885. 7. 4 Corp. Paroem, I. 178.

5 Compare the omission of article and copula in the so-called Delphic sayings.

extant until our own day. And nowhere else better than in the cur-
rent phrase of everyday life can the attitude of a people
towards a particular subject be observed. The importance of the
study of proverb and of animal proverb especially for its sidelights
upon Greek life and thought needs no defence.

The proverbs of the ancient Greeks were very numerous ; a collec-
tion comprising every proverb in the language does not exist. The
great work of Erasmus, Adagia^ purports to contain all the proverbs
of the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews and Arabians. For a study in
Greek proverbs the Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum, published
in two volumes at Gottingen 1839 and 1845, the work of Schneidewin
and Leutsch, serves as the best basis. The first volume contains
the proverbs collected by Zenobius, Diogenianus, Plutarch, Gregorius
Cyprius, together with an Appendix Proverbiorum ; the second volume
contains the Diogenianus collection (codex Vindobonensis), the col-
lection of Gregorius Cyprius (codices Leidenses et Mosquenses), col-
lections of Macarius, Aesop, Apostolius, together with a Mantissa
Proverbiorum ; the collection of Apostolius embraces also that of Ar-
senius.

Of these collections that of Zenobius is of most value and import-
ance.* This collector lived and taught at Rome in Hadrian's time ;
besides making a collection of proverbs from Greek literature, he
translated Sallust into Greek and wrote a birthday oration for Had-
rian. In the Middle Ages the proverb collection of Zenobius was ar-
ranged alphabetically and combined with two other collections into a
corpus of proverbs. At the proposal of Erasmus, Schott grouped the
proverbs in this corpus into " centuries," an arrangement which still
obtains in the Schneidewin-Leutsch corpus.

The collections of Macarius and Apostolius (15th century) were
compiled from collections made in the earlier Middle Ages, and have
but little value in themselves. Christ considers the collection of
Plutarch not genuine ; it was apparently compiled from the work of
the grammarian Saleukos ; ircpi tcuv Trap' 'AXe^avS/oevcn wapoifUiav,*

Seventeen proverbs in the Corpus' are styled proverbs of Aesop ;
they are listed by the editors without comment ; they were probably
derived from some paraphrase of the fables made in the early Middle

« Christ* p. 804 f .

* V. Cnisius. Ind. Uct. TUbingen, 1895.

i Schneid.-L.ettt$ch II. pp. 228-230.

Ages. Demetrius Phalereus made a collection of the fables : Xoywv
At<rcMraW avvayutyaiy which was the basis for the collections of Libyan
fables of Kybissos* and others. The collection of Demetrius, as well
as the others based upon it, has not come down to us ; we have the
poetic versions of Babrius, Phaedrus, Avienus, and from the Middle
Ages the prose paraphrases of Aesop's fables, the fables of Syntipas
and a collection in choliambic tetrameter of Ignatius Diaconus of
the 9th century.'

The paroemiographer, Michael Apostolius, was born about 1422 ;
he was taken by the Turks at the fall of Constantinople in 1453 ;
after regaining his freedom he went to Italy, where he fell in with
Cardinal Bessarion at Bologna; he returned to Greece, settled in Crete
and gained a livelihood there as copyist and teacher. With the in-
tention of compiling a collection of Greek proverbs he read through
countless writers of antiquity, noting down as he proceeded sentences
and expressions which seemed to him valuable, names of prominent
men and deities. He thus produced an extensive work containing
excerpts from the Greek writers. He termed " proverbs " many
phrases which were not actually " proverbial." His work, left incom-
plete at his death, was continued by his son, Arsenius.'

Important adjunct sources of proverb material are the mimes of
Herodas, and the works of Hesychius, Suidas and Eustathius. In
this study, however, the author has confined himself largely to the
Schneidewin-Leutsch corpus. An attempt has been made to study all
of the proverbs listed in those volumes containing direct mention of
or references to members of the animal world. The collection of
Greek animal-proverbs thus obtained has been subjected to examina-
tion in each individual case under the following four categories: i)
the source of the proverb 2) the application of the proverb 3) the
group to which the proverb belongs 4) the significance of the animal
metaphor employed. These four categories need some explanation :

i) Source : On the thesis that an animal proverb is a fable in
miniature or by suggestion, the attempt is made to ascertain the fable
origin of a proverb. In many cases this fails ; other sources of the
use of a particular beast or bird in proverbial saying are : mythology,
local precedence, superiority, peculiar characteristics and the mere

> cf. PrantL 0^. cit on Libya as the peculiar habitat of tierepos and Aesopic fable.

a V. also Starkie : Was^s p. 232 s. v. Aio-cinrov.

3 Krumbacher : By%. Lit. p. 603; Cor^. Paroem II. 253 f. s. Apost. PimefoHo,

association of man and beast ; these also must be considered in the
attempt to find the source or origin of a proverb.

2) Application : By this term is meant the particular use which a
proverb has acquired. Certain persons, objects or circumstances
prompt the employment of a particular animal metaphor. ** Appli-
cation " may be either direct or indirect, as, for example, a selfish
man may be said to be a " dog-in-manger," or on the other hand to
a treacherous man may be applied the " wolf-friendship " proverb,
wherein the implication " wolf-treachery " is latent.

3) Grouping : With reference to both origin and application, as
well as other characteristics, proverbs fall naturally into various
groups. This fact is seen as soon as one makes a study of tiie Greek
proverbs in which the lower animals figure. To be sure, almost all
of such proverbs might be grouped under the term " metaphorical ; *'
then again, these might be grouped with reference to the origin of
the metaphor, whether derived from the noting of outward physical
appearance or of animal instinct. These last mentioned are the
proverbs of " tierpsychologie." But there are further groups within
these more general categories. Such, for example, is a rather large
group of animal proverbs of incongruity or impossibility of the "bull-
in-the-china-shop " order. Numerous changes are rung on this one
proverb ; while the purpose and application remain unchanged we
find various beasts and birds employed under various circumstances
of incongruity. One may safely predict that we shall find that these
are all derived from one archetype proverb or fable. Another group
contains proverbs which are in reality from the same source but have
been so misquoted or emended as to have lost almost all trace of their
common origin. Such combining and grouping of the proverbs tends
towards a reduction of the actual number of those existing in the lit-
erature.

Additional groupings of less importance will be noted in the follow-
ing pages, where the proverbs selected for study are edited.*

4) Significance of the animal metaphor employed : This follows
as the result of the study of a given proverb under the categories
mentioned. My main purpose has been to attempt to draw conclu-
sions on the moral significance of the animal metaphors, and thus to
show the attitude of the Greek mind towards these members 6f the
animal world. This has been very difficult in many instances. £s-

* V. infray pp. 11 ff.

pecially if mere outward characteristics have given rise to the proverb,
and are the only reasons for its existence, the conclusions are too ob-
vious. We are inclined too much to regard the Greek as subtle ; many-
steps in this study have led me to discover that a great deal which we
put down to subtlety is at times but mere chance, and at most, com-
mon sense, of which the Greek had an abundance. It is true, how-
ever, that in studying a goodly number of the Greek animal proverbs
the investigator finds that some deeper thought is latent ; that the
framer of the original saying had penetrated beneath fur and feathers,
imputing to the lower animals human feelings, appetites, passions,
plans of action, reason, insight and other abstract qualities. It is
from proverbs of this order that much can be deduced to show the
moral significance of the animal according to the ancient Greek. A
particular beast becomes the type of a certain characteristic or qual-
ity and, as a general rule, continues to stand for this quality through-
out all the proverbs in which it appears. From proverbs involving
a beast of a particular locality, provincial pride or precedence, out-
ward mark, abundance, scarcity and the like, there can be practically
no deductions with regard to moral significance. These negative re-
sults, however, are, in themselves, interesting.

The next step is that of comparative study of proverbial sayings in
all literatures ; this is, of course, beyond the range of this disserta-
tion, but I have endeavored to note in every instance deviations on
the part of the Greek from other peoples with regard to certain of the
more important beasts mentioned in the proverbs. The famous and,
to us, surprising instance of this sort is that of the ass ; to the Greek
the ass is a beast of sagacity ; our term ** silly ass " would have seemed
to the Greek a proverb of the incongruous or impossible.

Behind animal proverb and animal fable lies the field of Tierepos.
Investigation in this field has been by no means neglected, although
it has not proved very productive of tangible results. Prantl, in a
paper entitled : Einige reste des thier-epos bei den sammelschrift-
stellem und naturhistorikem des spateren alterthums,' asserts that
" the tierepos is deeply rooted in Greek folklore and is to be sought
for deeper and farther than in the so-called Aesopic fable from its
first traces in Hesiod down to Babrius."* While Prantl has brought
together numerous anecdotes from scholia, collections of proverbs
and late writers on natural history, the bulk of his material is de-

« PMci, VI, p. 6i f. a op. cU., p, 6i.

rived from Aclian, who should be used with caution.* Specially in-
teresting is that portion of Prantl's work in which he compares the
individual animal types in Greek anecdotes with those found in the
Germanic tierepos, as set forth, for example, in the work of Jakob
Grimm.* In several instances an animal type transferred from Greek
folklore appears under a different guise, while the original facts of
the legend remain the same.

The work of Keller : Thiere des classischen Alterthums,' is, as
its author states in the preface, but a beginning, dealing with perhaps
a third of the animals of classical antiquity selected for study on ac-
count of their relations with mankind. Here are included : boar,
wolf, panther, dolphin, eagle, goose and others of which the philolo-
gist and archaeologist seldom speak and which the author undertakes
for the first time to present in their proper light, as, for example, the
stag and the jackal.

Marx's work : Griechische Marchen von dankbaren Tieren und
Verwandtes,* includes stories of dolphin, eagle, stork, dog, lion, ele-
phant, and some smaller animals, derived from legend and fable.
The purpose of the author has been to bring to light a number of
Greek animal stories especially as they present themselves in the
writings of antique historians of animate nature, and to ascertain to
what extent they can be authenticated by the facts of natural history.
His study is limited to ** grateful " beasts, e. g., the story of the lion
and the mouse, a type of story recurring in ancient folklore.

Much still remains to be done in this field ; mere lists of the ani-
mals of classical antiquity constitute only a first step in a right direc-
tion ; facts regarding animal psychology can be the fruits of prolonged
study only. From fable and proverb may be obtained glimpses of
characteristics ascribed to certain animals, and also the Greek view
of individual members of the animal world. <* The Greeks were
brotherly to the lower animals. Bull, cow, heifer, cock, ass, dog,
were at all events not beneath the level of the highest poetry."*

Greek proverbs have not been entirely neglected by investigators,
and yet comparatively little has been done in the study of the prov-
erbs for their intrinsic interest. Work in the field of Greek paroemi-
ography has been concerned chiefly either with textual criticism or

« Gildersteeve, Pindar: The Olympian and Pythian Odes (ad ed.) Intro, essay, p. x„

styles Aelian "an utterly untrustworthy scribbler."
' Reinhart Puchs^ Berlin, 1834* ' Innsbruck, 1887. 4 Stuttgart, 1889.

< GUdersleeye, op, cit. Intro, essay, p. x.

manuscript tradition.* Considerable work has been done, however,
on the occurrence of proverbial sayings, in particular authors of Greek
literature, together with the usage and habitat of proverbs, and their
contribution to the author's thought and style.* These studies are
all useful and interesting in that they present the range of Greek
proverbs in certain authors or departments, although they do not
necessitate a treatment of the proverbs with reference to their inherent
meaning or origin. The work of Wiesenthal : Quaestiones de no-
minibus propriis quae Graecis hominibus in proverbiis fuerunt,' ap-
proaches more nearly an analytic study of Greek proverbs. The
proverb of the " proper name," it may be said in general, cannot be
as distinctively inherent in the folklore of the Greeks as the animal
proverb, a possible exception being the proverbs mentioning mythi-
cal characters. Reference by name to personages had its origin in
the written literature and became " proverbial " in later times ; the
personages mentioned are, as a rule, historic or divine. Proverbial
references to members of the animal world date back to a far earlier
period ; indeed, it is quite possible that the animal proverb is the
oldest of all proverbs.

I Such, for example, is the work of Crusius, Philol. Supp. VI, and of Cohn, ibid] also
the Dissertation of Petzold: Quaestiones paroemiographicae misceUaneae^ Leipsic,
1904.

* The list of dissertations includes: Baar: Sprichworter .... aus den griech-idyllen-
dicAtern^ Gbrz iSSg; B9,uck: De proverbiis .... apud Artstophaneum comicum,
Konigsberg 1880; Griinwald: 5/nVAti;d'r^r .... ^« P/a/tf, Berlin 1893; Koch, H.
& J.: De proverbiis apud Aesch. Soph. Eurip,^ Konigsberg u. Barmenstein 1887 and
1892; Linde: Deprow. apudtragicos Graecos usu.^ Gotha 1896; Martin: Studien auf
detn Gebieteder Griech. Sprichwbrter^ Plauen, 1889; Tribukait: De proverbiis . . .
aPud bucolicos Graecos obviis^ Konigsberg, 1889; Wunderer: Sprichw'drter ....
beiPolybios,i^.

3 Barmen, 1895.

MAJOR ANIMALS IN GREEK PROVERB^

The most significant proverbs involving animal metaphor are now
studied for the purpose of ascertaining how the individual beasts were
regarded by the ancient Greeks :

This proverb is found in three forms : 'Atckcs op^s and At^ cis Od-
Xaatrav and 17 ati rrfv OdXaaaav, It was applied to those who stared
intently at an object, finding pleasure in it ; it seems to have refer-
ence to some well known story, and is probably of fable origin ; the
goat is represented as an old fogy among animals staring for the first
time at some novel sight ; the goat is strictly a land animal accus-
tomed to rocks and hills; to the goat the sea is a novelty ; the goat
typifies stupidity.

2. *H ati Sovtra ri)v iidyaipav.

This proverb is found in the forms : atf t^k fidxaipav and a*i frnxai-
pavy and also aiyos t/dottos is practically the same proverb or belongs
in a group with it ; the application is to those who bring evil fate
upon themselves unwittingly ; the origin is found in the story of
Corinthians who, when about to offer a goat to Hera Askrea, discov-
ered that the sacrificial knife was missing, and were searching for it
when the goat pawed the ground and disclosed the knife with which
she was despatched ; again the goat is t)rpical of stupidity.

Related proverbs, in some instances involving other animals, are :
Kopiiivrj Tov (TKOfyjTiovy Koviv ^v<ra$, vs o/otvci, and other proverbs of those
involving themselves in difficulty.

3. Ai^ ovTTO) riroKfVy lpi<f>o^ S' ctti Soi/jiari iral^ti.

This proverb is found also in the shorter form : Kli ouwcu t€tok€v. It
is the locus classicus of the modem phrase : " counting one's chickens
before they are hatched." It is of fable origin and was used es-
pecially of those who announce as complete that which is not yet
brought to light ; it is a proverb of the kid rather than of the she-
goat ; the kid typifies noise and pretense with nothing really behind it.

4. Ai^JSkv/ooi.

The proverb of the Skyrian goat is the locus classicus of the modern
proverbs ; " the cow kicks over the milkpail," and " upsetting one's

owii dish.*' This is a proverb of local origin ; the goats of Skjn-os
were renowned as milk givers, but were fractious ; the proverb is
applied to those who overthrow their own prosperity ; it was also used
of those who were rich and could yield benefits in abundance. The
she-goat in the proverb, being of local origin, shows nothing of moral
significance.

5. Kar* olyas dyptas.

The form : eis alyas dy. was also current. Here the wild goats are
meant ; previous proverbs above dealt with the domestic she-goat.
In this proverb the goat is an outcast ; the saying is almost equiva-
lent to eis Kopaicas. In the latter phrase, however, there is no idea of
assuming an evil which exists in the proverb before us, which is
clearly the proverb of the " scapegoat." " Let us pray then to Apollo
to turn the pestilence upon the wild goats."* With the turning of the
pestilence upon the wild goats should be compared also the belief in
antiquity that the bite of a goat was noxious ; goats were believed to
be always feverish.* Also the proverb: k&v ati ^dKgSvSpa irovrjpovf
belongs here, in which it is implied that even a wild goat would avoid
an evil man.

6. A?ya rrjv ovpaviav iwiTcXAovo'ov c^cocraTO.

The simplest form of this proverb is Ati ovpavia. It is a proverb of
myth : the origin is the story of Amaltheia, the nurse of Zeus ; in one
version of this story Amaltheia is the name of the she-goat that gave
suck to the infant Zeus, in another she is the nurse who gave the god
to a she-goat ; Zeus on subduing Kronos plucks off one of the horns
of the she-goat, gives it to Amaltheia, in whose hand it becomes the
horn of plenty, yielding her whatever she desired.* Kallimachos says*
that from the she-goat's horns flowed nectar and ambrosia ; whence
the proverb nys 'AfuiX^ctas ic€pas. These proverbs were applied to
those who had all that they desired ; the fortunate ; the dikasts whose
patron divinity Amaltheia was because of their receiving bribes. The
proverbs are clearly of mythical origin, definite application and are
proverbs of the horn of plenty ; they show nothing of moral signifi-
cance of the goat.

« Philostr. Heroic, p. 710 fin. » Varro R. R. II. 35; Verg. Geortr, II. v^,

3 Roscher. Lex, I. 282. 4 I. 40.

7. aiywv ovofutra.

This proverb is applied to that which is useless. Erasmus remarks :*
One acts foolishly to attach names to goats. With this proverb may
be compared : rfj^ fitfrpo^ m aU icoXeiTot, for as Apostolius com-
ments :* kids are known by their dams in the flock since it is impos-
sible to know their sires.

8. Ati CIS rrjv iopnjv.

This is a proverb of the opportune ; the goat arrives in the nick of
time. It was applied to those who approached a situation oppor-
tunely ; but the arrival of the goat at the feast is inopportune for the
goat itself, and thus the proverb has in it the idea of unintentional
sacrifice as in the aU r^v fidxaipav proverb, with which it is related.
The goat again figures as a creature of stupidity and lacking in fore-
sight.

9. Oi ivvafiai r^v alya ^cpciv^ KdwirCOiri fioi jSovv,

This proverb has its origin in the method of carrying sheep and goats
in Greek lands. To carry a goat upon the shoulders was not diffi-
cult ; to carry an ox was so nearly impossible a feat as to call for
comment when accomplished by the athlete Milo of Crotona. The
proverb was applied to those who were in poverty but had resort to
the money lender, thus involving themselves still further in debt.'
Aii = wcvwt, j3ovs = TTcvtti + Saveionys. The proverb belongs in a
group with the proverbs of " the last straw on the camePs back."
The significance of the goat in the proverb is merely that of contrast
in size with the ox.

Thus from a study of these nine important goat proverbs we see
that the goat was not held in high esteem by the ancient Greek. The
goat in the proverbs is typical of stupidity, pretence and was a trouble-
some animal. The wild goat was harmful and a worthy subject upon
which to bestow a curse and, on the whole, a creature of low order.
KU in the proverbs, as in Homer, is usually feminine.

*A.X.(airrji.

I. 'AXiawrfi oi 8o>po8o#ceirai.
This proverb is derived from observation of fox characteristics ; the
clever methods of hunting its prey and its artful avoidance of snares

* p. 142 op. cit. * XVI. 54 tf/. cit,

3 Plut. Atr. alitn, 6, p. 830 A.

were early noticed by the Greeks ; the proverb was used with refer-
ence to those who were not easily won over by means of bribes and
gifts ; it seems to connect with our proverbs : " cannot teach an old
dog new tricks," and " look a gift horse in the mouth," though with a
slight variation in the thought. The fox is pictured in the proverb
as the type par excellence of slyness, art and wariness.

2. 'AXcoin;^ rov povv cAavvci.

This is another " contrast " proverb ;* it is found in the shorter form;
iXtamfi Tov jSovv. It is derived from the noticing of animal charac-
teristics ; it was applied to those who, apparently weak, are able to
prevail by means of craft and cleverness against the great and pow-
erful ; the fox of the proverb is again the crafty and wily beast.

3. 'AXcDirc/ciiS^civ irpos crcpav dXcSirc/ca.

A proverb belonging to a large group of related proverbs : to play
the Carian on the Carian ; to play the Cretan on the Cretan, and
the like.* It is said of those who undertake to deceive their own
kind. Our modem version is, " it takes a thief to catch a thief."
The fox here is shown to be so sly as not to be above cheating or
tricking its own brother.

4. 'AXX' oitK avSiq SXiOTTrfi sc, iraycus aX<ao'€Tai.

The usual form of this proverb is : dXV oiK aS^ts akiamfi. It is
used with reference to those who escape an evil informer, who have a
narrow escape and learn a lesson therefrom. It suggests the modern
sa)dngs : " not to be caught in the same trap again," and " not let the
same dog bite one twice." Pindar' gives a variation of this proverb
which indicates the significance of the fox in the proverb : firjriv 8*
&Kiainji, a fox for craft. An echo of this proverb appears in Horace*
although the fox is not mentioned by name.

5. FcpcDv SXiairtfi o{f\ aXC<TK€Tai vafQ.

This is closely related to the proverb : aXK* oitK aWts iXwnit* It also
belongs to the group erf "old age " animal proverbs, of which there is
a goodly number, most, if not all of them, of fable origin, and remi-
niscent of such fables as the *'old hound" and the "old lion" of Aesop.
It was said of those who had learned by the vast experience which

« Ati 9. supra.

2 cf. Aristoph. Vespae 1241 ; Babrius xcv, 63 Ruth.
Isth. Ill, 65. 4 Sat. II, 7, 70-71.

comes in old age, when one has passed through many trials. It is
akin to the modem proverbs mentioned above.* The significance of
the fox here is that of the shrewd beast ; the old fox has had his wits
sharpened by his experience ; he is too alert to be caught in the trap.'

6. 'H KcpKos T^ iXtavtKi fiapTvpti,

The pi^cf de resistance of all fox proverbs in Greek is the proverb
of the fox-tail. It is used with reference to those who, by some slight
act or outward characteristic, betray their true nature. The proverb
is derived both from the difficulty of the fox's concealing its promi-
nent appendage, and also from fable source. The fable of the cat in
the bag with head and tail hanging out is suggestive ; then, too, the
fable of the fox without a tail shows the importance of the appendage
to the beast itself. There are many Greek proverbs of this order ;
they may be called proverbs of distinguishing mark. Some examples
follow : 'Ex rov Kpacnr&ov ro vav v^^ojfTiia.^ similar to the modern
phrase, " a chain is as strong as its weakest link;" *Eic ycv/iaros ytvoMr-
<c€4s, from a taste you know the whole ; rov Ai^iWa €ic t^s o^ea»s, the
Aithiopian is known by his looks ; 'Eic rov Kapirov ro ScvSpov, " by
their fruits ye shall know them;" ' 'Ex r&v ovvx^y rov XcoKra, "let not
him that plays the lion pare his nails."* The moral significance of
the fox in the proverb before us can be derived indirectly ; the fox's
tail betrays the wary beast that tries to escape its enemy ; the char-
acter which is betrayed by the outward mark is not a good one ; it
cannot be concealed. " Evil will out."

7. ''Av tMi Xtornj iiiKvrjrai rriv ^wrtiajv irpotrat^ov.

Very important, too, are the fox-skin proverbs, of the typt given above,
and also : r^v iXwrti^v vircSv, which is a closely related proverb. Sev-
eral varieties of the proverb as here given are found in the collections.
It is applied to those who have recourse to underhand devices when
open methods fail. It is a proverb of contrasted animals.* The con-
trast is to the discredit of the fox and in favor of the lion ; thus again
the low esteem in which the fox is held becomes evident ; the lion
signifies strength, the fox astuteness and trickery. Of one who prac-
tices trickery it is said: "He puts on the fox-skin;" to such an ex-

' *AAa»in;i 1.

* With this should be compared old age prow, of imros and jSovs infra for opp. signif .
s Matt, vii, ao. * Shakes. Mids, NigMs Drgam, IV, 11, 40.

V. 'AXitfin^ 3 supra.

tent is the fox the tjrpe of craft with the Greek, that even its skin has
atcquired an important metaphorical significance. It is possible that
there may be a connection with the proverbs of the ass in the lion's
skin, since in the fable source of the latter the fox also figures.'

8. lIoXX' o28* dXtam/fi dAA* ixivo^ tv /uicya.
In this proverb perhaps the hedgehog has a little the better of the
bargain ; the fox is said to know many wiles and arts ; it is the* type
of trickery and resourcefulness, but the hedgehog has one successful
means of escaping its enemies. The proverb is clearly one derived
from observation of animal nature, it is a proverb of contrasted ani-
mals and represents the fox in the same light as in previous proverbs.

There are several other fox proverbs in the collections of the paroe-
miographers, none of which, however, yields anything in the matter
of moral significance of the fox. From a study of the important fox
proverbs here given, it is seen that the fox was the type with the an-
cient Greeks, as with us, of wariness, craft, trickery and astuteness ;
he may try to conceal his true nature, but it is certain to be betrayed
by some striking characteristic ; he has not a good bill of recommen-
dation from the Greek ; he is not regarded as a beast of high order,
i have spoken of the fox as '*he," as is natural with us today, as well
as in the Germanic stories of Reynard the Fox ; with the Greeks,
however, the fox, quite rightly, it would seem, is always feminine ;
certainly its traits as depicted in the proverbs are exceedingly femi-
nine. The fox figures very prominently in Aesop, playing a role
in upwards of twenty of the best known fables ; although but few of
the proverbs can be traced directly to these fables as a source, it is
probable that most of the proverbs are related to them.

Bovs

1. 'Arpcfias jSovs.

A saying used with reference to those who ^patiently and with perse-
verance accomplish their ends. The ox in the proverb typifies quiet
persistence. It is a proverb of the slow moving, toiling beast.

2. Bovs 3^r/T0v iiriTrfpiav,

There are three forms of this proverb : the one given above, /Sovs els
dfiriTov and ^ov9 Sifirirov iirirrfpovvrt^. It is used of those who patiently

> For contrast between fox and lion, and might and craft, may be cited : Hom. 0</. IX,
406-408 ; XIV, 330 ; XIX, 299: Find. O, XI (X), 20, with Gildersleeve's note.

toil for a definite purpose. The significance of the animal metaphor
is again obvious ; it is the patient enduring ox.

3. Bovs iirl Sco-fia.

This proverb was applied to those who give themselves up to chas-
tisement ; it belongs in a group of proverbs having similar meaning :
Kwav M Secrfu£, vs iirl Sccr/xa, ati r^v /xaxaipav, etc. Our modern say-
ing, " to put one's neck in the noose," is practically the same proverb.
The ox here has a new significance ; he is not only the creature of
patience and toil, but also an animal of dull and stupid characteris-
tics, similar to those of oT^.

4. BoOs c^' iavr^ KovUrai.

This is said of those who willingly give themselves over to evil, for
the ox is docile and yields readily to the yoke, patiently enduring all
the hardships of toil. This proverb groups itself with the proverbs
mentioned in connection with number 3 above, and others of similar
meaning, which illustrate the principle often observed in the Greek
proverbs of changing the animal without changing the thought or pur-
pose of the animal metaphor in the proverb. Some view of the docil-
ity of the ox comes out in this proverb.

5. ^oiica povs iirl a-^y^v fioXtiv,

This is one of the famous ox proverbs. It is often referred to in the
literature as jSovs iwl o-^y^v, or fiovq cirt ^rvi/v, the latter apparently
a blend form with the Kviav iv ^rvj; proverbs. The two forms, how-
ever, connect this proverb with several others, as given above in the
study of number 3 ; the several forms of these related proverbs ap-
parently grow out of an archetype, thus illustrating an interesting
phase of proverb study which may be called superfetation of prov-
erbs. Taking the first form of the proverb, the application is similar
to that of number 4 ; the other form would be applied to those who
have that which is customary and pleasant to them. In either case
the moral significance of the ox is dullness, patience, stupidity.

6. povs viro ivyov.

7. fiovs iipOTrj^ ycyowi.

From these two ox proverbs nothing additional is derived concerning
the moral significance of the ox ; both proverbs are applied to those
who are weary with much toil, the latter also to one who has learned
much through toil and hardship ; the ox is again typical of patient
endurance and uncomplaining service.

8. T^tfcXorra/SovvIXavyc
This is similar to the well known verse in Theokritos :' re
i^yt. rC riw ^vyovra iiwKtii ; The idea is that we should seek that
which lies at hand and be satisfied with it ; love the one who loves in
retom.' The epithet OiXovra is the important word in this ox prov-
erb ; the ox is the willing and uncomplaining beast of the field.

9. BoStv lira tx^rt*

Famous among metaphorical jSovf proverbs is this proverb of the
oxen's ears. Apostolius' quotes the story of Antagoras reading aloud
in the presence of Boeotians and remarking, since none of his hearers
apparently comprehended him, " naturally you are called Boeotians,
Boutroif tor you have oxen's ears, Pwov cSra." This saying seems con-
fused in some of the collections with the well known saying : BoimrU
vf / The forms : Boutriov ovv, and Boioir&os vovs, are also found
which are illustrative of analogy and superfetation of proverbs. The
proverb as here given was applied to the witless, and indicates the ox
as the animal metaphor of dullness.

10. Ti^pf pov% rhi Vlpya iroKKk rif pet.

This " old age " proverb is interesting in contrast with the proverb of
the old fox,* and in similarity to the view of animals past their prime
so clearly pointed out in the fables. Grouped with it are the foUoiv-
ing two proverbs of the old ox :

1 1 . VifHov povf dirivOrjrot iv iofiouriVf and

12. Bov« ir aiXUfyipi^v or Bov9 ivavXfto« yipwv.

These three proverbs were applied respectively to (i) those who have
grown old but must still continue their labors ; (2) those who have
rounded out a full life and have finished their labors, and (3) those
who enjoy with advancing years quiet and rest from their labors.
The ox in all three of these interesting sayings appears as the beast
of great toil and patient endurance.

13. ^Eic Tov pov9 if yu&trrii.

This is still another version of the aU t^v fiaxaipav proverb of the one
who brings ill upon himself unintentionally. The lash which is used
as a goad for the ox is made from the hide of the ox itself. The sig

« IdylL XI, 72; Ahrensa. « cf Theok. idid, i8 : rC Tov ^iXcokt' dwoPdW-Q;

a V, 13. * Find. O, VI. 90.

» 'AXctfn^ S supra.

nificance of the animal metaphor is the same as in previously men-
tioned ox proverbs, that of dullness.

14. Bovg €7rt yXoxrayf.

This is a proverb of wide usage, appearing in all the principal collec-
tions. It was said with reference to those who had received a bribe
to be silent. Its origin is to be found in the fact that Athenian coins
bore an image of an ox or bull. With this proverb should be grouped
the saying :

15. Bovs iwiPrf,

which was also said of those who suddenly became silent. The paroe-
miographers incline only to the figure of the animal on the Athenian
coin as the origin of the proverb. I believe that we can see in this
proverb some reference to the characteristic dumbness of cattle, and
the saying means no more than that one is " as silent as an ox." The
idea of the size of the animal also may enter in, implying that one is
silent or has an ox on one's tongue, a weight preventing one from
speaking. To be silent for a "weighty" reason is also suggestive.

16. Certainly in the proverb Bov? iv yvdSoi^ f^ipu (the reference to
)3ovs with parts of the body seems to connect it with the preceding),
the idea of size of the ox is uppermost in the mind of the framer of
the metaphor. This proverb was applied to those who were gluttons,
and may have been derived from the anecdotes of Theagenes of
Thasos and Milo of Crotona, each of whom was reputed to have been
able to devour an ox entire. There is no moral significance in the
proverb.

17* Bovs €v iroXci.
This is one of a large group of proverbs of the incongruous, in which
an animal is represented as being out of his proper sphere. These
sayings were applied to an unusual event ; in this particular proverb
the implication is that jSavs belongs in the field, not in the city : and
this proverb was applied to one who had been exalted by some un-
deserved honor. The moral significance of the animal is akin to that
seen in previous )3ovs proverbs of the patient toiling beast of the
field.

18. Mm, )3ovs, iror\ pordvrjv*
This proverb adds nothing to our view of the Greek feeling toward
the ox. In this proverb, however, the patient beast is given promise

of reward for his labors ; thus the sa3dng was applicable to those who
needed encouragement for the accomplishment of some imdertaking.

19. 'H i/iaia rov ftovv iroXXaicis iK<l>€p€i, var. 2\icci.

This is the proverb of the " cart before the horse." There are one
or two shorter forms of this proverb : 17 i/mia rov ftcniv and afiaia
rov Pwv l\#c€t. Macarius (iv. 33) derives the proverb from the fact
that a dead ox is drawn in a cart by oxen. The application of this
saying was to those who act contrary to nature. Discarding Ma-
carius's explanation of its origin, this proverb may be regarded sim-
ply as a " proverb of the impossible." A river cannot flow backward
to its source ; neither can the cart drag the ox. Strength and weight
are typified by the ox in this proverb.

20. El fit) BvvaM povvy iXxLvv 6vov.

A proverb of contrast or comparison. It was applied with reference
to those who were trying to do more than lay within their powers.
** If you cannot build a wall you can bring mortar." It is also a
proverb of making the best of one's circumstances. Embrace a change
of lot even if it be less than one desires. The comparison here be-
tween ox and ass is unusual for Greek proverbs, for the ox seems to
be regarded as of a higher order than the ass in this proverb, whereas
in the proverbs of the ass this animal is seen to be of a high type.
The comparison in the proverb before us is, however, only one of
physical strength and power, not of intelligence.*

2 1 . Ao/cpft/cos jSovs.

A proverb of local legend. The story is Jtold of Lokrians who fash-
ioned a bullock out of wood for sacrificial purposes, being at a loss
for one of flesh. The proverb was used with reference to the thrifty,
or of things paltry and worthless.*

22. *A^(i>s KakvvT€i irXcvpa Arffiviai )3ovs.

A proverb based similarly on local legend, and yielding nothing as to
the Greek view of )3oC« in general.

23. Bovs 6 MoXorrctfv*

This proverb also is derived trom particular customs of a people ; it
is found in some of the collections as jSotSiov MoXorri«coy, and in this
form was applied to those who were of handsome appearance, since
the Molossian cattle were renowned for their beauty.

» See ass proverbs m/ra.
a cf, "wooden nutmegs.''

24* Bovs Kuirp&os cZ.
To call one a Kyprian ox was to call one Kowpotfidyo^f for such was a
characteristic of the cattle of Kypros. Pliny* mentions this tradi-
tion.

25. 'H Kavvui jSovs.
This is the same proverb as the ati ^KvpCa, with change of animal and
local color. It is the proverb of the "cow that kicks over the milk-
pail," and is derived in this instance from the tradition that the cows
of Kaunos gave abundant milk but would upset the milk pans. It was
used as a proverbial saying with reference to those who undo the re-
sults of their labors.

These several important proverbs of the ox indicate that the Greek
was not an admirer of this beast ; in general, the beasts of the field
did not appear in a very favorable light to the Greek mind ; the ani-
mals and birds of beauty, rapidity of motion, cleverness, skill, in-
genuity and characteristics approaching more nearly those of man
roused the interest of the ancients to a larger degree.

The ox in the proverbs stands for little that is fine, noble or inter-
esting ; he is only the patiently toiling beast ; he moves slowly ; he is
patient under the yoke ; he is dull where the goat is stupid ; he is
easily managed, and for so huge a bulk to be so docile only adds to
his score of dullness and lack of intelligence ; he goes dumbly to
slaughter or sacrifice ; he puts up no fight, a characteristic to the
Greek, typifying again dullness and stupidity ; the poor ox*s only re-
deeming traits are his patience, his endurance, his strength, his per-
severance ; and yet these traits, too, lead the Greek to have but a low
opinion of ox-psychology, for they are indicative of lack of spirit.
His weight is used as a metaphor ; his ears are metaphorically used
to mean " stupid ; " he does no end of work, but when he is worn
out his departure is not lamented ; from his own hide comes the goad
that drives him ; his own kind drag him to his last resting place.

To our minds the ox has some good traits, some picturesqueness,
and a great deal of usefulness ; he is, to be sure, the dumb brute, the
dull ox, but he is not that merely; he is the tyij^e par excellence of
patience. I think that the Greek was not an admirer of patience as
a virtue, and I am perfectly sure that to the Greek, ox-psychology
resolved itself into the one word dull.*

* H, N, xxxiii, 20, 81.

> cf . Greek view of elephant i^/ra, great bulk indicating dullness.

1. ^wwor as xcScor 2c&uricct$ rpl^w.

This is our first glimpse, in this study, of a group of proverbs of the
"superfluous" or the "unnecessary;" related proverbs of this group
are : iMraw hrraa^ai Sc&juricccs* 3cA.^iiia yri-xyrBai MaffKfi^, vhmp fiarpaxffi
arioLp yoXj^ Av3ov cis xcScor irpoo-icaXciv, etc., forms of the "coals to
Newcastle" proverbs. The idea in all of these sayings in which ani-
mals figure, b that of the uselessness of teaching a given beast or
bird something in which it is already adept The proverb is applied
to those who challenged their betters to strife. Another form of the
proverb is : Iwirw cis ircSibv vpotcaXdaBaLj which Plato puts into the
mouth of Theodoros m Theaitetos, 183 D: " 'Iwm els irc&ov "
wfiOKoXS ^Kparrj cl« Xoyovs irpoicoXov/bicvos, most aptly with reference
to Sokrates. The horse (and its rider) are quite at home on the
plain ; to teach a horse to run is superfluous ; the " horse characteris-
tic " in the proverb is speed.

2. n«Trov Ytjpas*

Old age proverbs of I^xos attest that the age of a horse was of as
much importance in antiquity as it is with us today. Erasmus' in
commenting on this proverb gives its application ; it was said of those
who had given promise of great things in youth, but with the approach
of old age relax their efforts. The horse is valued only as long as he
is useful, and is discarded when past his prime. This view is similar
to that shown in the old age proverbs of )3<ws.* Two other proverbs
of the old horse belong to the same group with this one,

3. ^ImriffyrjpdaKOVTi ra fiuova kvkX* itripaWtj and

4. Tpav9 ok Tis rrxos rov )(apaipalov ra^ov l^cts.

Significant is the prevailing view in the mind of the ancient Greek of
the uselessness which comes with old age in animals ; there is ap-
parent in the animal proverbs of this order no feeling of attachment
or affection. Proverb No. 3 above was derived from the custom of
branding with the mark, rpvcriiririov, which indicated that the beast
was superannuated. Prov. No. 4 was applied to those worthy of ex-
treme penalty.

5. *A^* tiririav iir* ovovs.

The opposite form of this proverb is also found ;

> Adagia^ page 285.
• V. )3ov9 supra.

6. Airo 6v(av c^* tinrovs.

A similar form with somewhat different significance is :

7. 'Ex l3paBva'K€\i!iv ovcdv r^nros cSpovcrcv.

The saying, a<^' T^ttcdv cir* ovovs, is applicable to those who descend
from a lofty position to a lowly one ; the opposite to those who rise
from low estate. So the proverb, Ik ppaSv<rK€\.Stv ovcdv iiriroq oipovcrcv,
and its short form, tTnros dw' ovov, are applicable when a man emerges
from obscurity to fame ; when pupil surpasses master. The ass' is
not held in low esteem by the Greeks ; the comparison here seems
to be one rather of mere size of the animals and not so much one of
intelligence or understanding. The speed of the two beasts is also
part of the comparison. Horse characteristics gleaned from the prov-
erb are speed, size and beauty.

8. ^Itnroi ©CTToXt/coi.

This is one of the horse proverbs of special locality. The horses and
mares of Thessaly were proverbial among the Greeks for superiority.
The saying is therefore applied to something of great worth. Such a
hold had this tradition of the Thessalian horse that the mares of
Eumelos,' styled the best in the Greek host against Troy, were re-
garded from the words iv Uupirfi^ as Thessalian. Valckenaer con-
jectured Oi7pcti/i,^ which as Leaf* says would " be satisfactory but for
the fact that the Thessalian town is ^cpat/ ^pou being in Mes-
senia."

9. 'EiiriSavp&os tinros.

Similar to the preceding proverb ; applied to that which was worthy
of praise, since Epidaurian horses were famed for their excellence.

10. TLotrja-ia rrjv olxtav crov Sovpciov iinrov.

This is often referred to as Wpcios rmros. It was used with reference
to hidden wiles, stratagem, or when sudden plots appear which have
been heretofore concealed. It is the proverb of the " wooden horse of
the Sack of Troy."'

* V. ovos infra.

* Horn. //., B. 763 ff-

^ Horn. /. c, 766. * ibid.

* For the whole matter v. Leaf. //. vol. i, p. 107 n, on /. c.
^ Horn. //. B. 711.

^ Horn. Odyss, VIII, 493 ; $12.

The list of horse proverbs here given includes about half of those
collected by the paroemiographers ; the others are obscure in origin
and significance and are, in several instances, sayings of narrow range
and late in the literature. From a study of Greek proverbs of the
horse little can be derived in regard to the Greek view of this ani-
mal ; Greek proverbs of the horse are very difficult and obscure ;
they indicate nothing of animal psychology ; we should almost be led
to believe that the ancient Greek, as well as the modern, considered
the horse to olXoyov. Nevertheless, from the proverbs and from other
sources, we learn that the horse in antiquity was typical of swiftness,
beauty, independence,* nobility,* size and physical strength. The
horse was an expensive animal in antiquity ; the Thessalian was the
Arabian horse or Kentucky thoroughbred of ancient times. I feel
that the Greek regarded the horse not as a beast of intelligence
or cleverness ; with the exceptions of size and beauty the horse was
by no means as interesting a beast as the ass, and not nearly so
gifted.

The suffix 'iTTwos in Greek proper names has no figurative meaning ;
Krijcrwnros means possessor of horses, ^tXimros lover of horses. As a
prefix, on the other hand, the word has a decided majorative signifi-
cance, as in iinroKprffivo^ and in names of plants : ItnroXdiradov, itnro-
fjLoipadpovy tinroa'cXivov, and pejorative meaning in such a word as
linroTTopvos. Parallels are found in English in "horse laugh," loud, ex-
plosive laughter, and possibly in "horse-chestnut," from the showiness
of its blossoms and the size of the nuts.

KdfijfXo^,

1 . KdfJLrfko^ KoX ^l/iapioKTa rroWiav ovo>v dvarti9cr(U ^opria.

This is a proverb applicable to those who, although they are old, still
are more useful by reason of their experience than others who are
younger. It shows the camel in a favorable light ; the compari-
son with the ass is unfavorable to the latter ; the camel, though
diseased, is still of more service than many asses ; here, then, the
camel is the beast of great usefulness. The camel is represented as
a creature of high order.

2. KdfiriXo9 iirllKafjirjXi^

This is the proverb of the heaping of great things upon things already
great. It was used with reference to the superfluous ; "you are heap-

« Somon. 7f $7. * Herodot. vi. 57.

ing & Camel upon a camel." There is no moral significance of the
camel in this proverb ; the animal stands merely for size.

3. 'H KcifirjXo^ iiriOvfirja'aa'a K€pdriav koI ra cura irpoot»r(i>Xco'c.

" The camel desired horns and lost her ears into the bargain." This
is a very clear case of a proverb being a compressed fable. The fable
of Aesop' from which this proverb is derived tells of a camel that be-
sought Zeus for horns since so many handsome animals had them ;
the god not only refused the horns but cropped her ears short for her
presumption. The moral of the fable is the application of the prov-
erb : by asking too much we may lose the little that we have. The
Greek, we see from this fable-proverb, regarded the camel as by no
means handsome.

4. "Mvrjfir/v KafirjXov,

The camel was believed by the ancient Greeks to be endowed with a
good memory in comparison with other beasts ; this is seen also in
the closely related proverb :

5. Mn7<riicaicta KafirjXoVf

in which it comes out that the camel's memory of an evil done was
well known to the Greeks. The camel remembers an injury and
avenges the wrong. To the Greek mind, then, the camel is an ani-
mal of intelligence, memory and reflection, and so depicted in the
fables.*

6. KdfirjXo^ Spx^trai.

This is another clear case of proverb as a fable derivative. The fable
of Aesop is as follows : A camel, compelled by her master to attempt
to dance, said : '* I am not only ill-shaped for dancing but even for
walking." ' Then again in the fable of the monkey and the camel
there is a further source of the proverb : At a great meeting of the
beasts the camel, having seen the monkey dance, attempted it also,
but she was so awkward that she was driven from the meeting.^

The camel in proverb and fable is a creature of usefulness, re-
nowned for size, physical peculiarities, small ears in proportion to its
size, regarded by the Greek as a beast of high order, gifted with
memory and other signs of intelligence. A proverbially humorous view

> Halm 184.
» Aesop, Halm 68.
s Aesop, Halm 181.
4 Aesop, Halm 365.

which has come down to the present day seems to exist in camel
fable and proverb arising from the creature's awkwardness.

Aesop recounts seven fables of the camel, nearly all of which gave
rise to proverbs ; the camel proverbs in Greek are less obscure in
both origin and signification than those of such animals as at£, ^latnji
and imros.

Kva>v.

1. KvvtKos Odvaro^.

To die " a dog's death " is proverbial in the English tongue today.
With the Greek the phrase has a much worse significance than merely
to die as a dumb brute ; it refers to the innate dread on the part of
the ancients of being left unburied after death ; the dog was looked
upon as so worthless as not even to deserve burial. For a form of
this same phrase may be cited Aristoph. Fespp, 898 : BdvariK fiJkv oZv

2. Kvvt SiScDS &xypa ov<p 8* ooTca.

This proverb was applied to those who acted contrary to expecta-
tions, or who made inappropriate gifts. It is another of the animal
proverbs of comparison, and again the ass is the animal playing the
second role. The proverb is related to 6vo^ eis ^x^pa. The refer-
ence is a natural one to the food of dog and ass.

3. KvcDv T€VT\ia oifK iaSUi

So too in this proverb we are led to see that the Greek regarded the
dog as fastidious. There is some difficulty in reconciling this saying
with those given below with regard to a dog's choice of food. The
story is told that Diogenes' gave this proverb as an answer to those
who called him a dog : ovros 6 K-vmv reur \ia ov Sa/cvct.

4. KvcDv vap* ivT€poii,

Still another of the proverbs of dogs' food, and in this instance a ref-
erence to the low taste of the dog. Macarius,' in commenting on the
proverb says : " dogs find entrails hard to swallow," and the saying
was applied to those who were unable adequately to enjoy a pleasure.
The proverb is derived from the observation of dog characteristics ;
it is well known that a dog is fond of entrails and carrion.

» Diog. Laert. vi, 45.
» V. 39.

2?
5* KucDV Kvvis ov\ aiTTCTat.

This proverb was used with reference to those who stand by their
own kind ; dog remaining true to dog. The Latin form of the prov-
erb mentions dog's flesh : cants non caninam est. The saying is ap-
parently derived from dog characteristics. Similar is Aischylos
Supp, 226 : opviBo^ opvi^ wS)^ Av ayv€voi ^y<ov/

6. XaXcirov -xpptov Kvva ycv€*v.*

This saying has its origin in the tradition that a male dog, having
once tasted the membrane enveloping the embryo at birth, cannot be
restrained from devouring the young pups. It was applied to those
who are never satisfied but are always desiring more. It shows the
greed of the dog as a noticeable trait in its nature.

7. To evwvov Kpia% ol kvvcs ia-Qiova-iv.

The dog appears in this proverb merely as as a carnivorous ani-
mal. The proverb was applied to the stingy and niggardly, for dogs
will eat any sort of meat set before them whether good or cheap.
" Stingy as a dog " is familiar in modem parlance.

8. Ov8€ Kviav TTavcatT* avai (TKvrorpaytiv /Aa$ov<Ta,

This is /ocus dassicus of the "old dog and new tricks" proverb. It is
similar in significance to several of the old age proverbs of other ani-
mals ; the idea of greed is the additional one. Another form of the
same saying is, <r#cvTovs c^cxa Scpcrat xvov, xctvos 8c o-Kvrorpayct, and
this connects with the ox and hide proverb * ; there is apparent a
blending of proverbs here. A notion of the usefulness of dogs' skin
is seen in this proverb ; also, there is a suggestion of lack of intelli-
gence on the part of the dog and unchangeableness of its nature..

9. Kvov €irt Tov tStov l/icrov €irt<rTp€»/ras.

Undoubtedly the best known of all dog proverbs. It is not original
with Greek, but with Semitic nations ; it appears in the Old Testa-
ment', and in the New Testament,* kvwv cVtorpc^as lin to tSiov c^e
pa/ia. Its application in Greek literature is to those who go back
from a good course to their former evil ways. Derived from dog
traits the proverb gives a disgusting picture of the animal and indi-
cates the low opinion of the dog held by the ancients. While the
moral significance in this proverb is not original in the Greek mind,

> cf. Theokritos X, 11, and Ahrens n. ad, loc, II, p. 315.

' V. jSoOs 5upra\ cf. also Aesop : fable of the dogs and the hides.

3 Prow. 26, II. * 2 Pet, 2, 22.

the low order of the animal's nature was evidently the same in the
eyes of the Greek as in those of other peoples.

In no one of these dog proverbs which have reference to the food
of the animal does anything come out showing the least favorable
view. The traits of this animal are in a large degree revolting ; there
appears no glimpse of animal psychology attributed to the dog.

ID. noXXou Kvvo'S Sipacvos tivaC,
Another view of dog traits is given in the proverb mentioned above ;
dog nature, as conceived by the Greek mind, is prone to lust ; the
proverb was applied to those who were given to debauchery and car-
nal lust.

1 1 . KvcDv cirtcnrcvSovcra Tv^Xa ycw^.

Another form of this proverb is, kvcdv (nrcvSovira rv<^Xa rUru, The
proverb is of fable origin ; Aesop recounts that the bitch boasted that
she gave birth to her young more quickly than did the sow ; the latter
replied, "Yes, but your whelps are born blind," the moral being that
not in speed but in completeness lies perfection ; " the race is not to
the swift." * The fable and proverb were therefore appropriate to
them who go astray through haste and make blunders ; " haste makes
waste."

1 2 . 'Ev <f>p€aTi Kvalv fu£;(€(rAu.

To fight with dogs in a well was to meet with an obstacle from which
there was no escape. The source and significance of the animal
mataphor is to be found in the characteristic savagery of dog nature.

13. Kvvos ovs.

This proverb gives us the first intimation in this study of proverbs
that the Greek considers the dog an intelligent animal. The saying,
you have a dog*s ear, means that you have a very keen sense of hear-
ing ; the source of the proverb is the sharpness of dog sense, the ten-
dency to prick the ears doubtless being noticeable.

14. KvcDv ivl Sccr/Aa.

This is a blend proverb with jSovs iirl Sco-fia, and others of the same
or similar significance, with change of animal. The dog belongs on
the leash. The application of the proverb, to those who give them-
selves up to chastisement, connects it also with proverbs of the goat.*

I Aesop, Halm 409b.

* V. ali rrfv fiaxpupavy supra.

This may be called a proverb of the dog in proper place in contrast
with the proverbs of the dog-in-manger group.

15. Kv«F €W vpoOvp^

This is another proverb of dog in proper place. Its origin is in the
protecting qualities of the watch dog. It was used with reference to
those daring and i^thful in the performance of duty. Here is seen a
higher opinion of the dog than that evidenced in previous dog prov-
erbs. The dog is accorded traits of courage and fidelity.

16. Kva>v €w iltdTyrf,

This is the first of the proverbs of the dog in improper place, and is
one of the most widely known of all proverbs of the dog. Its source
is found in the fable of Aesop in which it is narrated that a dog had
made its bed in a manger and lay there growling and snarling to pre-
vent the horses from approaching to their fodder ; "What a miserable
cur it is," said one of the horses, ''to keep us from our com, while
she could not possibly eat it herself."' The form of the proverb usu-
ally found in the collections has 17 icva>v, the bitch. The proverb is
applied to those who prevent others from enjoying what they them-
selves cannot enjoy or use. There may be behind this proverb and
its fable source an inkling of animal psychology ; the bitch is regarded
as selfish and obstinate, ill-tempered and unreasoning.

17* Kva>v cv poSoiq.
Another proverb of the dog found where it is not desired. A dog in
the midst of roses signifies a person living in a sphere higher or bet-
ter than he deserves. There is no place for a dog in luxurious sur-
roundings. In this, as in the other proverbs of the dog in improper
place, no very high opinion of the dog on the part of the Greek is
evidenced.

18. Tt Kwl Kol paXvUlf', SC. KOiVOV.

The same idea is seen in this proverb ; it was used of a person found
in an unaccustomed place, or of one who is useless under certain cir-
cumstances. The dog is an animal often found where it ought not
to be.

19. Kva>v €v r<^ ya/A<^.

I think that this proverb may be traced to the fable of the dog at the
feast, told by Aesop : A dog, having been invited by another dog to
attend a dinner at the house of the latter's master, began to revel in
' Aesop, Halm 238,

the dainties in anticipation immediately upon his arrival to such an
extent that the cook, catching sight of a strange dog in the kitchen,
threw the poor beast out of the window. The proverb was applied
to one who was ^ trop.^

20. 'Ayoficvos 3ia ^paropcov kvcov.

This is still another proverb of the group of dog in improper place.
Again the dog appears as proverbially ubiquitous, and the saying was
used similarly to the last mentioned proverb. Nothing additional is
derived from the proverb with regard to the Greek view of the dog.

2 1 . 'A^ta 17 KViov Tov Bpovov.

The significance of this proverb is ironical and is similar to that of
No. 17. A dog does not belong on 6 Opovo^, the seat of honor in a
Greek house. So a person who is raised to an honor greater than his
worth is a " dog in the seat of honor." The dog is an inferior ani-
mal ; an outcast.

22. OtaTTCp ri SccTTTOiva roid 1^ kvcov.

"Like mistress, like dog." Another form of the proverb indicates
that it is derived from an imitative trait in the dog, ai kvVc? t^v hifr-
TTOivav fu/jMvficvai. The secondary or figurative meaning of the saying
is : As the mistress is, so will the servants be ; or, as the ruler is, so
appear the subjects. Plato (^Resp, VIII, 563 C) quotes this proverb,
drcxvcos yap al T€ #cvv€s Kara T17V vapoifiiav olat Trcp at 3eWoivat ytyvovrat.'
There is an underlying significance in this proverb which leads us to
think that the Greek noticed that the domestic dog is easily trained
and tends to grow like those with whom it is associated.

23. AcKa 17 KViov TCKOt T€ #cat iravra \tvKa. sc, ct.

Good luck was expected if a bitch gave birth to ten white pups.

24. Kvva Scpciv ^eSapfievrfV,

To flay a dog already flayed is like "sticking a knife into a dead car-
cass." The proverb was used with reference to those whose labors
are in vain. The scholiast on Aristophanes Lysisir, 158, to tov ^cpc-
icpaTou^, *c- 5. 8., explains the origin of this saying as follows :"Phere-
krates introduced this proverb in a play of his, referring to those who
have to undergo sufferings beyond what they have already suffered."
Our modern sapng of " hitting a dog when he is down " is practically
the same proverb.

^ Aesop : The dog invited to supper.
* V. Griinwald, diss. cii.

(

2 5* Avrov oil rpc^cDv m/vas rp€4>€is.
This applies to those who give sustenance to others while in need
themselves. A related proverb is: oo'tis Kvva rpc^ct ievov roinf fiovov
Atvos ftcVct, which indicates something of dog ingratitude. The latter
proverb is evidently derived from the dog trait of seeking its former
master, as soon as a stray dog that has been given a temporary home
is loosed. There is also loyalty indicated here as a dog character-
istic. " Ungrateful dog" and the faithfulness of dog to master seem
confused in the interpretation of these proverbs.

26. *^^o/A€v Kvva T<p 7rT(a\(a PoTfOovvra,

The opposite view of disloyalty is evidenced in this proverb. For
here the dog is ready to accept a morsel of food as a bribe and follow
whoever tempts him with a promise of good treatment. The saying
was employed in connection with those who have confidence in their
servants while in reality they are being plotted against by them. The
view of the dog in the proverb is not a favorable one. It illustrates
the traits of changeability, unreliability and faithlessness. Cf . Aesop :
Dog and thief.

27. Svv T<p Kvvl Koi TOV l/XaVTtt.

This proverb was employed with reference to those who had lost
everything, "Dog leash and all." "Alles ist weg." With the use of i/iots
in the proverb may be compared, Aristoph. Fesp, 231 : ifxas mJvcios.

28. KvcDV 'Epcrpta#co9.

A dog of particular locality ; a proverb applied to those worthy of
high praise.

29. KvcDV \aC$apyo^.

A proverb of the skulking cur, the dog that bites without warning.
The saying was used of one who appears friendly but is awaiting an
opportunity for "stabbing in the back." Dog nature brought out
here reminds one of the proverb of the dog and beggar.* The say-
ing, (raCvovo'a 3aKv€ts kcu kvwv XtuOapyo^ el, is found in Soph. J^r, 902,
and in connection with the proverb Aristoph. £^, 1022 ff. may be
cited.

30. KvvlBul McXtrata.

These are the Maltese lap dogs spoken of by Aesop in the fable of
the monkey and the dolphin, as carried about by sailors as pets. The

I KV(*iV prov, No. 26, supra.

lap dog appears also in the fable of the ass and the lap dog being
caressed by its master. The proverb of the Maltese dogs is applied
to those who are brought up in comfort and ease.

The Greek dog was both a domestic animal and the *'dog of the
street." Of all the animals except the ox and the ass, it was most
closely associated with daily life. Hence the proverbs employing the
dog or the bitch metaphorically are very numerous. Physical quali-
ties of the dog play a large part in such proverbs, and the animal is
of so complex a nature, according to the Greek view, that the moral
significance of the dog in the proverbs has many sides.

Greek proverbs of the dog fall into several categories : (i) dog in
proper place, (2) dog in improper place, (3) proverbs of dog nature
and (4) dc^s of special localities. From a study of thirty important
dog proverbs under these categories the following results are ob-
tained :

The dog is an outcast unworthy of burial ; greedy ; lustful ; dis-
gusting in tastes and habits ; savage ; selfish ; ubiquitous ; ungrate-
ful ; changeable ; vengeful ; unreasonable.

On the other hand the dog is regarded by the Greek in the prov-
erbs as a pet ; teachable ; susceptible to good influences as well as
bad ; fastidious ; useful ; loyal ; alert ; an animal of very marked
characteristics.

From a weighing of these contradictory bits of evidence the bal-
ance inclines toward the side of an unfavorable view of the dog.
Hardly anything appears in the proverbs to show that the Greeks re-
garded the dog as an animal of intelligence ; there is no reference to
the dog as a creature possessing beauty or the traits of affection or
gratitude.

Aaym,

1. Aa(rv7ro8a Axiycov vapaSpafitlrai )(€\(avrf.
Behind this proverb and the saying,

2. Aaycus KaOevSiov,

stands the well known fable of the hare and the tortoise.' The hare
taunted the tortoise with the slowness of its pace, whereupon the latter
proposed a race with the hare; the challenge was accepted; the tortoise

I Aesop, Halm 420 and 420b.

started off at its usual slow pace, while the hare jumped past and ran on
so far that there was plenty of time for a nap before making directly
for the goal ; the tortoise plodded on and won the race. Hence the
moral : slow but steady wins the race. The hare in these fables and
proverbs is typical of speed, but there is an underlying thought that
the Greek attributed to the animal a certain pride in its swiftness.
There is, further, a reference to a belief in antiquity that the hare
slept with one eye open.* (mod. "cat nap.") The hare in antiquity
was thought to "play possum." * These sayings were applied to those
who were alert and awaiting opportunity for mischief, while pretend-
ing to be asleep ; of those in reality audacious, but apparently slug-
gish.

3. Ev3ov(ri Aay<p.

This proverb has the same significance as the two immediately pre-
ceding. The hare t)rpifies alertness.

4. Aay(09 Tov irtpl Ttav KpeSiv (^Bpdfiov) Tpc^ct.

The proverb of the hare racing for its life. (mod. "to save one's ba-
con.") Apostolius^ remarks on the cowardice of the animal, whence
the phrase, 'Pi/yivos Xayws, in which the hare of Rhegion is typical of
the Rhegians themselves — cowardly. For the phrase vepl rtav Kpe&v,
may be compared Aristophanes /^an, 191, (H. & G.), where Charon
says : BovXov oiK Sytoy ei p.^ v€vavpM)(T]K€ r^v irepl rStv Kpewv, The hare
typifies timidity.

5* Aaycov Kara irdSas XPV ^^<<>'(C^v.
The phrase Kara iroSas signifies in close pursuit;* you must pursue a
hare "hot foot." Xenophon in Mtm, II, 6, 9, employs this proverb
thus : ov Kara iroSas wnrtp 6 Xaycas, ov8' iLTrdry wnr€p at dpvt^cs, oifSk
pCx^wnrtp ol lx$poL The hare again is t)rpical of swiftness in escape.

6. *AtlrvxoT€po^ Aayaxn) ^cvyorros.

7. AciXdrcpos cT twv Xayunav.

These two proverbs are used of those who are very cowardly. The
hare is timid and flees at the slightest provocation, (mod. " scared
rabbit") The hare t3rpifies fright and timidity.

« Plin. ff. N., XI, 37.

s Zenob. IV 84 ; Apost. X 40.

3X 41.

4 Herodot. V 98.

8. 'O Xaytos KoB* cavrov ra i}3ikrfuira.

A form of this proverb in Latin appears in Terence Eun, III 2, 36 :
lepus tuie et pulmentum quaeris'i where Donatus explains : "What you
have in yourself you are seeking in another, for the hare, as the an-
cient naturalists used to believe, was of uncertain sex, now mascu-
line, now feminine."* On the basis of this explanation the proverb is
derived from a certain natural characteristic attributed to the hare,
and the saying would be applicable to those who seek from others
what they themselves already possess.

9. Ka/[>ira^i09 rov Xayiav,

This proverb was applied to those who bring trouble upon them-
selves ; it is derived from a tradition that the people of Karpathos*
imported hares in small numbers, which rapidly increased and de-
stroyed the crops. The hare is regarded in this proverb as prolific
and destructive.

10. noAvyvcoTov AaycSs.

Reference is here made to a drawing of a hare made by the artist
Polygnotos ; there is no moral significance in the proverb.

From Greek vase painting it is evident that the hare was a symbol
of sexual love; the favorites of elderly men are often de-
picted on the vases with hares in their arms or at their feet as
pets. A study of the proverbs of the hare in Greek evidences
no such symbolism ; in one proverb there is an indirect reference to
sex, and in another an equally indirect reference to the hare's being
prolific. Beyond these there is nothing to indicate, in the proverbs,
that the Greeks looked upon the hare as any more than a timid little
animal, always on the alert, relying upon its swiftness of speed for
escape from the slightest hint of danger, typical of timidity, alertness
and speed. No other traits of animal psychology appear ; nor are
the physical characteristics of the hare given much attention. "Molly
Cottontail" does not exist ; in her stead we find "Roughfoot" the
hare.

* Macar. VI. 23.
' Macar, IV 94.

Accov.
t. Aiovra w(r(rci9.
This belongs to the same group with " you are treading on a serpent."
The application is that one is making a dangerous attempt which will
lead only to disastrous results. The lion metaphor in this proverb
typifies the power and exceptional strength of the lion, a beast which
it is not safe to rouse.

2. AcoKra ivp^^.

"To bell the cat." This is a proverb of the impossible ; it is also in-
dicative of the danger of rousing the ferocity of the lion. The pro-
verb appears in Plato Respub, 341 C : ovtw fmv^vai cScrrc ivptlv im-
Xetpetv Acovra #c. t. A., similar to the phrase "bearding a lion in his
den." The idea of the impossible is often represented in proverb
without the use of animal metaphor : Aidiorra pvrmivy and €19 vSa>/o
ypd4>€ivy for examples. The proverb before us connects also, in mean-
ing, with the fable and proverb of the villager and the serpent. One
who should attempt to shave the lion would be certain to find himself
in extreme danger.

3. ACCDV ^1^09 IxcDV.

This proverb is employed with reference to those who receive aid in
addition to their natural strength and bravery. The lion is the type
of courage and strength.

4. AccDv iv TTcSats.

The fable of the mouse and the lion is the source of this proverb*
in which Aesop recounts that the lion spared the life of the mouse,
and that later, in return for the favor, the mouse released the lion from
a net. The moral of the fable is that the very powerful are at times
dependent upon the very weak. The proverb refers to the holding in
check of one who is possessed of great power. Again the lion is the
powerful beast, par excellence,

5. Acctfv e^^vs CIS dyctfvas.

A proverb applied to those who are brave in entering upon a danger-
ous course. The prowess of the lion in engaging in combat is here
the significant characteristic of the beast.

6. *£i% o\iK l(rrt A€ov(rt.

The complete phrase is a verse in Homer, Iliad XXII, 262 : cSs qvk
lo-Tt Xcovat Kcu dv8/9a(riv opKta TrtcrTa. Man and the lion are enemies

' Aesop, Halm 256.

proverbially ; thete can be no oaths or pledges between them. Con-
siderable archaeological evidence exists from Mykenean civilization
down, showing the enmity between the ancient Greeks and the lion ;
also reference to Homer, passim^ to the same intent, and illustrative
of the ferocity of this beast.

7. Ov yj3n\ \kovTO% (TKVfivov iv woXti r/oc^cty.

A proverb of the "incongruous," of dog-in-roses type. It is applied
to those who are out of their proper sphere. The phrase appears in
full, as given above, in Aristoph. I^an, 1431.*

Proverbs of the lion-skin : Cf. Aesop, fable of ass in lion-skin.

8. T^v Xeovr^v ivBvov,

The lion is t)rpical of great strength ; the lion-skin is the usual attri-
bute of the powerful demigod Herakles ; "don the lion-skin" means
assume strength.

9. *Ev8v€Tat fJLOi T7JV AcOVT^V.

Another form of the proverb immediately preceding. At the opening
of Aristoph. J^an.* Dionysos is introduced as a mock-Herakles with
the lion-skin put on over his saffron robe. In Plato Craf, 411 A,
Sokrates says : o/acds 8c cTrctSi/Trcp rrjv Xeovrrjv cvScSvKa, indicative of
assuming strength.

10. Av 17 Xeovrrj firj c^iici/rat, rrjv iXtoireiajv wpoa-aif/ov,

11. *A T^ \eovTy firj o-^ci/cts, t^v dX<iMr€#c^v wpoa-axl/ov.

Two additional forms of the same proverb, already explained under
SiXdinrrji.

1 2 . 'Ei ow^ps Tov Acovra.

This is of the same group with ij #cepK09 ry dXawrc/ct fiaprvpet, ck tov
ycv/iATos 17 TFrjyrj^ and Ik tov Kpao-ircSov to v<f>aa-fjLaf which are proverbs
of particular characteristic ; in several cases an animal metaphor is
employed. The proverb is used referring to those who betray their
nature by a slight distinguishing mark. While the lion-skin is a meta-
phor denoting strength, it is the claw of the lion which is the distin-
guishing mark, typical of the beast's ferocity and power.

* Van Leeuw. would prefer *8o/AOts tO ttoAci, citing Aisch. A^r- 7i7 sqq. The verse
1432a IjiaXia-Ta fikv Xiovra firj iv voXei Tpc^ctv] is apparently a gloss ; v. a^-
crit H. & G., and Van Leeuw. ad. loc.

2 V. 46.

Proverbs of the lion in comparison with other animals :

13. Trjpa^ \€ovTO^ Kp€L(r(rov aK/jjataiv vcjS/otov.

A proverb of the old lion. In contrast with the old age proverbs of
domestic animals' those of wild animals indicate less waning of
strength. The contrast in the present proverb between the old lion
and the fawns is a striking one ; the lion typifies power and boldness;
the fawn, weakness and timidity. Aesop's fable of the old lion is
suggestive in connection with this proverb, although it depicts the
aged lion as sick and helpless, so the other beasts take the opportun-
ity to pay off the ancient grudges they bear him.

1 4. AecDv OTTOv xprj Kal iridrjKO^ Iv fiip€i„

The contrast is that of courage with trickery. The proverb appears
in Plato Respiib, IX, 590 B : Ik vkov dvrt \kovro% ttlOtjkov yCyvta-Oai ;
The lion is accorded a higher position than the ape in this proverb ;
open courage in the fight is typical of the lion ; the ape is a trickster.

15. *OvTcs OLKoi fikv AcovTcs, iv fJ^XQ S' dAcoTrcKcs.

Somewhat the same contrast is seen in this proverb of lion nature and
fox nature. The proverb is derived from Aristoph. I^ax. 1189-90.
The scholiast explains : vapoifiCa irapa tov? iv ry *A(rta Aa#c(ovas drv^^-
cravras, Ot/cot \€ovt€^ iv 'E^cVo) 8' dXwTrcKcs. Sharply (1905)* thinks it
likely that the proverb against the Spartans quoted by schol. (v. supra)
"arose in later times with the help of this verse." The lion is bold;
the fox skulks.

16. AecDv Trjv TpL)(a, ovo^ rbv ^lov.

This proverb goes back to the fable of the ass in the lion's skin as
its source. The ass figures with lion in several fables ; the ass and
lion hunting ; the ass, fox and lion hunting ; the ass, the cock and
the lion, and others ; in all these, as in the proverbs of ass and lion,
the latter has the better significance of the two animals, though the
ass is not regarded as a creature of low order by the Greeks.' From
such proverbs of contrast, then, it is seen that the lion is one of the
very highest type of beasts.

* V. pov^ and ?7r7ros supra.

2 Aristoph. Pax ad. loc.

3 V. 5vos infra.

1 7 . *0 vtPpos rov AcoKxa.

A proverb of the impossible, for the lion does not flee the fawn. The
phrase appears in Moschos* 4, 5 : Acwv wattO* vwo vcjSpov / The lion
typifies prowess ; the fawn is typical of timidity.

18. npos Acovra SopKaScs avvaTrrovs fu£;(a9.

19. ^oPtpiartpov ioTi crTparajreSov cAa^cov i^yovfievov Xcovros ^ A.€ok-
ra>y i\d4>ov.

In these two proverbs, also, the lion and deer or gazelle are con-
trasted as typifying force and weakness respectively.

20. AvKQ) avwofidi Koi tmrwy \iovri ye firfv oi/K Irt.

Indicative of a belief among ancient naturalists that the lion hunted
alone and not in herds ; a contrast is shown between lion and wolf
and between lion and horse. The lion typifies independence ; it is
an animal which relies wholly on its own strength. The proverb was
used with reference to those who could not associate amicably.

The lion among the Greeks is very familiar from the earliest writers.
Many of the most finely drawn similes of Homer employ the lion as
chief actor. The first great feat of Herakles is the slaying of a lion.
In the time of Herodotus lions in Europe were restricted to the
mountainous regions of northern Greece ; they were still found there
in the time of Pliny, but were extinct by 120 A. D.* In Asia Minor,
too, the Greek knew the lion at close range.

In Aesop the lion is a conspicuous figure in no less than forty-four
fables ; twenty significant lion proverbs appearing in the collections
and in comedy peld the following results : The Greeks chose the
lion as the type of power, strength and violence ; the proverbial lion is
hard to approach, relies on its own strength and needs no aid from
other beasts, is swift to enter a fight, is fearless, is a foe to man, is
essentially a wild beast quite out of place among the haunts of man,
roams and hunts alone rather than with other lions. As the lion is
symbolic of strength and prowess, so the lion-skin is employed meta-
phorically with a like significance. The lion's strength must be some-
times supplemented by craft and artifice symbolized by the fox-skin.
While the lion is regarded by the Greek in the proverbs as a beast of
high order, no mental qualities or moral traits, except bravery, are
mentioned ; the lion is king of beasts by right of might.

' Ahrens, 2d edition.

a Whibley, A Comp. to Gk Stud., p. 23, .

Avfcos.

1. AvKiav <f>i\{a.

A proverb of pretence, and with ironical significance, for there can
be no friendship with wolves. The proverb is of fable origin ; the
story is told of a wolf which had gained the confidence of a shepherd
to such an extent that one day the shepherd entrusted the flock to
the wolf^s care, with the result that the latter fell upon the sheep and
destroyed them. "Fool that I was I" exclaimed the shepherd, "for
trusting the friendship of a wolf." The fable of the wolf and lamb'
is also a source of the proverb of wolf friendship. The characteristic
of the wolf in fable and proverb is treachery.

2. AvKCDv av\i^.

This saying was applied to those who were mischievous and subtle ;
similar metaphorical usage of the wolf appears in other proverbs
treated below.

3. Srcyi; \vkov.

Applied with reference to those who were in distressing circumstances;
the wolf is typical of poverty. Cf., "to keep the wolf from the door."
The wolf is frequently pictured in the fables as in dire necessity of
food, as for example in the wolf and goat fable, the fable of the nurse
and wolf, and also in the fable of the wolf and the shepherds.

4. Tov \vKov Twv ^mv ^X^^^'

To take the wolf by the ears is similar in meaning to "taking the bull
by the horns." Erasmus says that the proverb was applied to those
who were in difficulties which they could neither escape nor endure.*
The proverb is derived from physical characteristics of the wolf ; its
ears are too short to hold, but if one had a wolf by the ears it would
be dangerous to relax one's hold. Donatus, Ter. Phorm. Ill, 2, 21 :
immo^ id quod aiunt^ auribus teneo lupum, quotes the complete Greek
proverb as follows : twv (Stcdv Ixw tov \vkov ovr"* d^eivat 8vva/iat.

5 *E/C \VK0V (TTOfUlTO^.

A proverb used when one has received something unexpectedly. "Out
of the jaws of the wolf," or "snatched from the jaws of death." It is
of fable origin and is to be referred to the fable of the wolf and the

Aesop, Halm 270.
' Adagia^ page 578.

crane,* at the close of which the wolf is represented as saying to the
crane, who claims a reward for having removed the bone from the
wolf*s throat, **To think of asking for any other reward than that you
have put your head in a wolf's mouth and lived to bring it out again."
The wolf in this fable and proverb is a savage and ferocious beast.

6. AvKov pTj/iara,

The proverb is derived from the fable of the wolf and the shepherds.*
The wolf peered in at the door and saw shepherds eating a sheep,
and remarked : €i cyci ravra iiroiow otros &v ?v Oopv^o^, The moral is,
Men condemn in others the evils they practice themselves. Thus the
words of those who are known to be wicked are styled \vkov prjfmTa.

7. Av/co9 Kpeas V€fi€i.

The proverb of the wolf distributing meat is used with reference to
those who defraud. It is a proverb of the treacherous wolf.

8. AvKOS TTpb I30VJ^ CTTTCvSei.

This indicates that the wolf is ever on the alert while committing acts
of depredation, and is ready to flee even before the alarm is given.
One who is over eager is said to be a wolf fleeing before the alarm.
It would seem that the Greek attributed a consciousness of guilt to
the wolf in this proverb ; cowardice also seems to be implied.

9. '"Ejfi'nrpoa'0€v Kpijfivos^ owurOev \vkol.

Perhaps here we have our proverb, "between the devil and the deep
sea." It is used of those who are hemmed in by dangers in front
and behind ; in front the precipice, wolves behind. The wolf is de-
picted in this proverb as a most dangerous beast, one greatly to be
dreaded ; the Greek apparently regarded the wolf as so savage that a
leap from a precipice was to be preferred to facing a pack of wolves.

10. AvKOs €is TTctya?.

"Caught in a trap." The application is upon those who fall into
danger already foreseen, or those who receive their due. The wolf
is the pirate among the beasts ; man, his enemy, sets snares for his
capture. This, like most of the proverbs of wolf characteristics, in-
dicates that the Greeks were very well acquainted with the wolf and
considered him a foe to be dealt with severely.

I Aesop, Halm 276b.
3 Aesop, Halm 282.

The wolf in company with other animals figures to some extent iri
the proverbs ; thus we find :

1 1 . AvKO? alya? ckkoAoiv.

12. Avfcos KoAci ra? alya^.

It is a case of " the wolf calling the goats." The proverb is ap-
plied to enemies who pretend friendship, and is connected with
the proverbs of "wolf friendship" and "wolf in sheep's clothing."
The source of this saying is to be found in the fable of the wolf and
goat, in which the wolf, seeing a goat pasturing upon a precipitous
place and not being able to reach it, desired the goat to climb down
lest she should fall and be killed. The goat replies, "you are not
calling me to pasture but are seeking food yourself." The character
of AvKos is here blended with that of 0X0^1^.^

13. AvK09 XiovTi (rvfi/SdXXei. 7r€<l>payfi€y<a.

Wolf and lion together form a pair hard to beat ; for here are united
the two most powerful and most dreaded wild beasts of Greek fable
and proverb. The coupling of wolf with lion, however, is rather in
favor of the lion in point of strength ; the wolf trait of underhand
means in the fight is alluded to here, similar to that indicated in the
proverbs immediately preceding ; fox traits again blended with wolf
traits are suggested. Aesop's fable of the wolf and the lion is the
source of the proverb.

14. AvKos dcrov ^evyct.

Here the wolf seems to find his match ; it is difficult for the wolf to
contend successfully with the eagle, especially if the bird is on the
wing.

15. AvK09 fidrrjv ^avcDv.

16. Av/co9 Ixavcv.

17. Av/co? irepl <f>p€ap.

These are all three proverbs of disappointed hopes. The proverbs
of the "yawning" wolf are derived from the fable of the nurse and
wolf, in which Aesop tells of a wolf that heard a nurse say she would
toss a naughty child to the wolf, so waited expectantly for his prey,
but was disappointed. Reference to the "yawning" wolf is found in
Aristoph. Lysisirat, 629 : olo-t irwrov ovSiv ci fii; Trep Avk<{> Ktyj^vori.
The characteristics of the wolf appearing in the proverb are those of

' Aesop, Halm 270.

its greedy nature and its wide open, snapping jaws, always awaiting
prey. The proverb of the wolf at the well is also found in the longer
form : Avkos Trcpt <^peap x^pcvct. It is used of those disappointed in
their hopes, and is derived from the thirsty wolf's repeatedly encircling
a well from which it is impossible for him to obtain the water. An-
other view is that the wolf cannot be satisfied with drinking, so thirsty
is he. Cf. KViav trap* evrcpoiS) supra,

1 8. Av/co9 cy oirtiji ytyvcrat kKv 4^€fyg k&v firf <f>€pif.

The wolf in this proverb is regarded as an animal never free from
suspicion ; he is always guilty of mischief. So a "wolfish man" is
is culpable at all times and cannot be relied upon.

19. AvKOV TTTtpa,^

The proverb of wolf's wings is a proverb of impossibility ; a wolf's
wing is as "scarce as hen's teeth" or "pigeon's milk." A fuller form
of the proverb is also found : \vkov wr€p6v IrjreU. It belongs in
a large group of proverbs of similar use, and is applied to those who
seek for what does not exist or who busy themselves with things that
are worthless.

Proverbs of the wolf in sheep's clothing are of several forms :

20. AvK09 TTOlfl-^V.

2 I . AvK09 Kat 6lv TTOtfJUUVeit

22. UpCv K€v oiv \vKOS irOLfJLaCvOl.

and here should be classed also the proverb :

23. *0 XvK09 TYfv rpCxa ov rrjv yvwfJLrjv.

These proverbs may all be applied to those who are plotting
against their enemies while at the same time pretending friendship
toward them, a very frequent occurrence in the wolf proverbs. They
are all derived from the fable of Aesop of the wolf in sheep's cloth-
ing. The second of these proverbs, in its several forms, is also a
proverb of impossibility. Similar phrases appear in :

Hom. //. XXII, 263 : oiBk Xvkoi tc koI olpvcs 6fi64>pova OvpJov Ixovo-ty.
Herodot. IV, 1 49 : roiyapSiv €<t>ri ainov KarakeCxf/uv oiv iv XvKoun,
Aristoph. /^ax 1076 : trpiv k€v Xvko^ oiv vfievaun.
Si, Matt, X, 16 : dTroo-rcAAo) vfia? <os irpo^ra Iv fi€<r<a\vK<i}v,
The proverbs are indicative of a view of the wolf akin to that of
the fox among the Greeks ; the wolf is crafty and designing in attempt-

» Meineke, Com. Prag.^ 2, 245.

ing to win his game ; he is a type of deceiver more daring than the
fox. Thus in the proverb (above) of wolf's hair (23) the wolf cannot
change its nature, though the outward appearance may be altered by
the sheep skin ; the nature of the wolf is irretrievably wicked.

24. AvKov dScs.
This saying was applied to those who had suddenly become silent,
for, according to a superstition, one who had seen a wolf or, more
usually, one upon whom a wolf had looked, became speechless. So
Theokrit. XIV 22 :» " o* <l>e€ytS ; Avkos eKc cr' ; " iiraiil ns. " <09
0-0^09 " €hr€, where the allusion to the superstition is the same, though
Cyniska is represented as recognizing in Avkos a word play on the
name of her lover.

Reference to the proverb is found in Latin literature, as for exam-
ple : Ter. Ad. IV, 1,21, /upu^ in/adula, on which Donatus gives the
explanation of the superstition. The phrase lupus infabula becomes
a proverb in itself, and as a reply is equivalent to saying, I am struck
dumb, or, I have nothing to say. In Vergil EcL IX, 53-54, vox quo-
que Moerim / iam fugit ipsa : lupi Moerim videre priores, we find a ref-
erence to the same tradition. On this passage Servius remarks : ^^a
man is deprived of speech whom a wolf sees first." The superstition
undoubtedly arose from the actual dread and terror inspired in one
who suddenly comes upon a beast of so desperate a character as the
wolf.

The wolf was well known in Greek lands from earliest times, and
in the literature very early became prominent in metaphor and simile,
in fable and proverb. Several passages in Homer give, pieced to-
gether, almost a complete picture of the Greek wolf. Thus in //., K
(X) 334, it is the gray grisly wolf ; also in Hymn ad Ven, 70 ; whence
the fable name of the wolf, Kvi^ictas the tawny yellow. (Babrius, 112)
In Od. K (X)2i4 sqq., wolves are styled terrible beasts, strong-clawed,
with long tails. The wolf plays a leading part in the fables and in
the proverbs of fable origin ; thirty-seven fables of Aesop and almost
thirty important proverbs show the wolf as chief actor. The larger
part of the proverbs may be called " wolf-characteristic" proverbs.
The wolf is depicted in these as an animal not held at all in high es-
teem by the ancient Greek ; a beast to be dreaded before all others ;

* Ahrens ; but v. Kynaston, and also Lang ad. he. cit.

a treacherous beast ; never to be trusted ; possessing a touch of stii*
pidity and also of cowardice, but plenty of means of deception ; a
dangerous beast ; in popular superstition the wolf strikes a beholder
dumb. In comparison with other animals in the proverbs the wolf is
given a very low rating by reason of two most marked characteris-
tics, cruelty and greediness. Wolf traits in the proverbs seem some-
times blended with those of the fox, yet in every instance the former
appears more daring and cruel than the latter.

1 . "Ovov woKovs iifrA,

2. "Ovoy KupuS'

To sheer an ass or to search for ass's fleece are proverbs of the im-
possible. To go to an ass shearing is to go to Noplace. The prov-
erbs, like others of the same group, are applied to those who under-
take useless or endless tasks. In Aristophanes, J^an, i86, Charon
names Ass-shearing as one of the ports at which his gloomy craft
touches^: ris cs to Aijft/s ircSiW, 1} *s "Ovov irXoKa^, (xoica$ CoM)

3. "Ovoi Syu fivarrjpui,

A saying used with reference to something which is contrary to ex-
pectation or to what is just or right. It is a proverb of the animal
out of proper sphere such as : kvwv iv poSois. The sapng appears in
Aristophanes Ran,^ 159 * v^ fov Ar cya> yovv Zvq% Syia ftvon/pio. The
fable of the ass in the procession is a source of this sa3ring : An ass
was carrying an image in a religious procession, and when people paid
obeisance to it the ass became very much puffed up thinking these
honors were for him ; the driver with the lash soon disabused the ass
of the silly notion.

4. *Ovos dxpoaroi (r(£Xxtyyos.

There are at least six forms of this proverb appearing in the collec-
tions : (i) 6vo9 dxpoaroi adkwtyya^, (2) 6vo9 Xvpas dicovW, (3) o. X. &.
Kiviav ra cSra, (4) o. X. rjKovt koX (raXxtyyos vs, (5) o. Xvpi^tav, (6) 6. X.
oiK iwaua, oiSk (roXxtyyos. The common factor of them all is 6voi
Xvpas. The proverbs were used of the unmusical and imeducated
who neither approve nor criticize. The fable source of these related
sayings is the story of the ass who saw a lyre, approached it, struck
a chord with the hoof and remarked, "a fine thing, no doubt, but be-
yond my skill." ^

A proverb of unexpected good fortune ; used of those who chance
upon good things beyond their hopes and use them to advantage.
Cf. tcvtav trap* ^rrcpots proverb,
6. *Ovos iv /neXtrrois.

8. **Oyo^ iv fivpois.

These proverbs all represent the ass in trouble. The sayings were
employed with reference to those who fell upon evils, or who foimd
themselves out of their proper sphere.

9. *Ovos vcTat.

A proverb of obstinacy, since the ass is not troubled by the rain, nor
is he always moved by the blow of the cudgel.

10. "Ovov Odvaroi,

This proverb is used with reference to the strange, absurd and ridicu-
lous. One would be wasting time relating an ass's troubles and an
ass's death.

1 1 . "Ovov yvaOoi,

The proverb of the jaw of an ass was used of gluttons and also of the
lazy.

12. "Ovos TO MeXtraia.

This is a proverb of fable origin.* An ass seeing his master pet a
little lap-dog and hold it in his lap desired the same treatment, so
broke his halter, rushed into the house and began to prance and kick
and at last tried to sit in his master's lap in order that he might re-
ceive the same sort of caress that was given the lap-dog. For his
trouble the ass received only a sound beating. The fable and prov-
erb teach that not all are born with like endowment of characteristics.
It was used with reference to those who try to emulate those above
them and become involved in difficulty for their pains.

13. Ilcpt ^vov o-Kias.

Another famous ass proverb derived from fable source. Aesop re-
counts that a youth hired an ass one hot summer day to carry him
from Athens to Megara. When the heat of the sun became scorch-
ing the youth dismounted to sit in the shadow of the ass ; the driver
of the ass objected, saying that it was the ass not the shadow which
* Halm 331.

he had hired. While they were thus disputing the ass took to his
heels and was soon lost to view. The proverb and fable are applica-
ble to men who though rich are ever troubling themselves over trifles.

14. Tctfv 8' 6vo}v oiSkv ficXci.

In this proverb the ass typifies "other folks" and "other folks'" affairs,
for the proverb is applied to those who do not trouble themselves
about other people's doings.

1 5. ' Ao-cXycoTCpos ovov.

This proverb does not show the ass in a very favorable light, whether
dcreXycoTopag be taken to mean licentious, wanton or brutal. The
phrase appears in Lucian, Piscator^ 34 : do-cXyco-rcpoi Svwv.

16. "Okou vppKrTOTtpos*

Similarly, used for brutality. The saying is found in Xen. Ah. VyS, ^.

17. "Ovov cSra XajSctv, var. MCSas ovov wra ^x***

To have ass's ears like Midas. The saying appears in Aristophanes,
Plutus^ 287 : v^ To\i<i Ocovs MtSais fi€v ouv, 17V wt' ovov kdfirfT€. Dio-
genianus' says that Midas had many spies, so that nothing escaped
him. The Scholiast on the passage in the Plutus explains : i) that
Midas had ass's ears by nature, 2) that Midas was given ass's ears,
3) that Midas wronged the asses of Dionysos, 4) that Midas was
transformed into an ass by Dionysos. The proverb was used of those
whom nothing escapes.

18. *'Ovos ircivcDv ov ^povrti^ct poTrdKov.

This proverb is a reminiscence of the only place in Homer where
the ass is mentioned, //. 558-562, where the simile gives the
picture of boys driving an ass, which turns aside to feed on the stand-
ing crops, and shows the stubbornness of the ass and his disregard
of all else but food when hungry. The proverb is connected with
the saying : Ipyov 6vov djrorpc^at kvco/ucvov, which also illustrates the
persistence of the ass.

19. *'Ov<fTis ^Xcyc fivOoVy 6 8c ra tara cicivci.

This proverb is explained by Zenobius, v. 42 : "The animal moves
its ears as if it understood all that is said, even before the words are
spoken, a mark of stupidity." There seems here to be rather a
clownish pretence on the part of the ass.

20. "Ovov irXriySiv 0^109.

That the ass of antiquity had to be beaten into tractability is seen in
this proverb ; the animal in this proverb is typical of a blockhead^
» VI. 73.

Cf. Cicero in Pison. 30, 73 : "Why now, ass, should I teach you
letters ? There is need of flogginp, not words."

2 1 . ''Ovos CIS Kvfuuav.

This proverb was applied to those who looked upon something as in-
credible or astounding, since the wild ass among the Kumaians was
an object of fear. The proverb closely allied with this: ravra Ev/buiiots,
Ifwt 8c 5vos cTi;, Apost. XVI, 19a, originated from the fable of Aesop
(Halm 333b) of the ass that donned a lion skin. Cf. also Lucian
Piscator^ 32.

22. 'O Av8os Tov 6vov i\avv€i.

For a Lydian to drive an ass is for one to do something not in ac-
cordance with one's worth, for the Lydians were famous for horse-
manship. To come down from horse to ass was to descend to a more
undignified position from one of eminence

Here belongs also the proverb : Slito jSpaSvo-iccXwy ovtov iTnros Jpovo-cv,
where the contrast between the speed of horse and ass is apparent.
Cf. also: air* ovov KoTOTTco-cov, Aristoph. JVud. 1273; Fesp, 1370 and
and Starkie's n. on /. c,

23. "Okos Itnrov fu/iovficvos.

This is similar in significance to the proverbs given immediately
above. Its origin may be traced to Aesop's fables : Halm 157, 177,
328.

24. *'Ovo9 KaOov,

Another form of the proverb is : jSao-iXcvs 1; ovos. It is derived from
the game played by Greek boys described by Pollux IX, 106, men-
tioned by Plato in Theaet, 146 A : 6 8c afiapra>v, icat os &v diet a/buiprai^
ica^c8cirai, wavep ffnialv ol 7rat8cs oi (r^tpti{[ovrcs 6vo9.

25. ''Ovov irapaicv^ca>s.

The proverb of the "ass peeping in." It is one of the "buU-in-china-
shop" proverbs. Its origin is to be sought in a story (Zenob. V, 39)
of a potter who was rearing birds in his shop ; an ass passed by,
peeped in at the door, disturbing the birds so that they began to flit
about the shop and broke the jars ; the potter brought suit against
the owner of the ass. Curiosity is again the characteristic of the ass
in this proverb. Cf. Menander, Meineke, Com. Gr, IV, 141 ; Lucian,
Asm. 45.

Several other proverbs of the ass derived from particular stories
and traditions may be mentioned, such as : 5vos ets 'Aft;vas — Bvov
KC^ciX^v firi ir\vv€Lv vCrpif — 6vos €ts fidprvv oyxarat — ItKvOrj^ rov 6vov —
Mvo-ios 5vos xareayis rov v&rov, and the metaphorical proverb : rov
ivovra &vTiiv€iVf since asses scratch each other in turn.

The proverbs of the ass in Greek are very numerous ; the collec-
tions of the Paroemiographi show over forty ; Erasmus includes still
more of Semitic and Latin origin as well as Greek. The ass acts a
role in thirty of the fables of Aesop. The ass of the Greek proverb
is a domestic animal, a beast of burden, a constant and familiar com-
panion of man. Although regarded sometimes with obloquy, as in
our modem parlance, the ass in the Greek proverbs is as a rule not
a stupid or dull animal ; the ox typifies more usually these character-
istics. The ass is not below the level of the highest poetry.^ The
ass readily attracted attention because of the animaPs marked peculi-
arities, both physical and instinctive. The ox is the proverb and
fable animal metaphor for dull, heavy stupidity ; the sheep stands for
a mild witlessness ; the ass is inquisitive, clever, clownish, obstinate,
persistent, a glutton, imitative, wanton and at times stupid. In com-
parison with the horse the ass was on a lower plane in point of speed
especially ; the ass was better known to the Greeks, however, and
was domesticated earlier than the horse.* The principal ass proverbs
given above show the ass i) as figuring in the fables, 2) the ass out
of proper sphere, 3) the ass noticeable for particular characteristics,
and 4) the ass of special locality or tradition.

' V. su^rot p. 5, n. 5.
a Whibley, op, cit., p. 24.

MINOK ANIMALS IN THE PIOVEIBS

The name yoA^ was applied in Greek proverbs both to the cat and
to the weaseL The name aZXovpos is the usually accepted word for
domestic cat (v. Aristotle Hist. Anim, V, 2, 7 ; VI, 35, 3.) This
name is also used for weasel. (Herodot II, 66; Aristoph. Ackam,
879.) The name yaXSj was applied to an animal of the weasel or mar-
ten order which was kept for somewhat the same uses as our domes-
tic cat The proverbs of yaX^ are interesting ; they represent the
animal as rapacious, ill-omened, vile smelling. Fables dt yoA^ are
^uriy numerous (v. Halm 86, 87, 88, 89, 291, 307, 345, 423.) In
these the prevailing notion is that oi the ill-omened qualities of the
animal. Aristophanes is fond of referring to yaXSj (v. Acham, 255 ;
J^hit. 693, where the foul odor of the animal is mentioned, and EccUs,
792, where the creature figures as ill-omened.) The idea dL ill-omen
is seen in the proverb : yoA^v Ix^^^* To "have a weasel" was consid-
ered bad luck ; the saying was applied to those liable to feuL (Diogen.
Ill, 84.) The proverb : -yoA^ xymviav, is a proverb of incongruity,
and was used of useless things ; the cat is to be identified in this say-
ing and it has its origin in the table of the cat changed into a woman
who, though clothed in a safihron tunic, started in pursuit ci a mouse.
Whence the saying (Macar. VI, 65) : ov wpewa yoA^ Kpoxmro^ ovrc
wofi^tvpau The yaX$ Tofm/aaCa, is the yellow-breasted marten. (Herodot
rv, 192.) Strabo III, 6, mentions yaXas oypuis. In the proverbial
phrase : afrwuKTucmrepai yaX«^ the rapacity of the animal is the signifi-
cant characteristic Most significant for the ill-boding nature (tf yoX^

b the proverb : $vpa &' ^ yuXSi o^ diT€px€Taij wherein the

superstitions connected with the cat (d modem times are suggested.
No mention of a black cat being especially bad luck is found.

The dolphin in Greek vase painting represents the sea, and indi-
cates that the scene depicted occurs on or in the water. The dolj^iin
is famous in antiquity as a friendly creature ready to save mortals
when they have the misfortune to fall into the sea. The story of
Arion (Herodot I, 24) is the familiar illustration.

In the proverbs, SeX^is is typical of the skillful, the graceful, the
swift The dolphin is a friend to seamen, a creature of good omen,
of size, of strength, but quite weak when out of its proper element.
The Greek proverbs which illustrate these characteristics are first :
the most famous of dolphin proverbs and one of the best known of
all proverbs : ScX^iva vrjx^aOai SiSao-xcis, used with reference to those
who attempt to teach one an art with which one is already well ac-
quainted. In the proverb : ScX^tm Xcican; ov x**^p^h *^be significant
feature of the dolphin is size ; the proverb is used of the arrogant.
In comparing the dolphin with the ox : ti 8^ ScX^ivt kol pot <^<r4 kol-
vovs (Eras. p. 177) the skillful is compared with the stupid, the adept
with the inert, the graceful with the awkward. That the dolphin is
weak and powerless outside its proper habitat is seen from the prov-
erb : ScX^tvos €v \ip(Ti^pCa., a saying applied to those whose strength
is insufficient for the task at hand. (Eras. pp. 64 and 151.) The
dolphin, though active and swift in the water, cannot endure the heat
of the sun, but dies when brought out of the sea. The proverbs :
ScX^m Ko\vfji,Pav av/jL^ovXtvy and SeX^U iv kovrrfpCfo are variations of
the swimming dolphin and of the dolphin-in-dish proverbs. The dol-
phin is often replaced by i^Ovi in the proverbs of the swimming-
dolphin.

*E;(ivos.

The name ix^vo^ is applied to both the hedgehog and the sea-urchin.
(Cf. Aristoph. I^ax, 1086, where the hedgehog is indicated ; Plato
Euthyd, 298D, where the sea-urchin is meant.) Properly the hedge-
hog is €xtvos x^9^^^^^ ^^ sea-urchin cxtvos ircXaytos. (Cf. Aristotle
Hist, Anim, IV, 5, 2.) Proverbs derived from observing these two
creatures have to do with the outward appearance and physical
traits. The roughness of the covering of the hedgehog figures in
proverbial metaphor with fairly frequent recurrence. Then, too, cer-
tain powers of forethought are ascribed to the hedgehog, especially in
the matter of self-preservation, care of the young, and pretending
death ; strategy is implied in the proverb of the "one great thing"
known to the hedgehog.

Proverbs illustrative of these metaphorical usages are the following:
aTTos ^x^"*** Tpaxw5, a proverb of those who are troublesome or intrac-
table ; roughness of coat signifies metaphorically roughness of tem-

per. Closely allied is the proverb : o* voiija-ii^ Xciov rov rpax^ i^vovf
a saying of impossibility. (Cf. Aristophanes Pax 1114.) The prov-
erbs : ix^vos €v x'^f'^^v^ 2ind l^^vos rbv tokov ^vafiaXXei, are derived from
physical characteristics. The proverb of pretending death is dirvoia
cxtVov, the popular tradition being that the animal represses its breath;
it was thought, too, that it was able to keep back its young from de-
livery.

In contrast with the prevailing view in modem times that the ele-
phant is an animal gifted with intelligence, Greek proverbs show this
animal as a huge, senseless creature, harmless and stupid. This view
of the elephant on the part of the Greek is doubtless due to the ani-
mal's great bulk ; to the Greek the larger the beast the less intelli-
gent. This beast is not shown in the proverbs to be regarded as of
great use ; the proverbs of the elephant are concerned chiefly with
the animal's size ; this is often contrasted with that of the tiniest in-
sect or animal. No proverb attributes sagacity to the elephant. The
Indian elephant is mentioned. Illustrative proverbs are the follow-
ing : €X€<^vTa iK fjLviai irotcts, which is another way of making a
mountain out of a molehill. The proverb is applied to those who are
exaggerative in their language. cXc^^vros Sta^cpcis ovScV, a proverb
applied to those who have no sense, and is illustrative of the Greek
view that dullness is to be associated with size. i\€<l>as fjivv oi) 8aicv«
is another form of the proverb : aquila non capiat muscam. The con-
trast in size of the two creatures is the significant use of the meta-
phor. Similar is the notion in the proverb of the Indian elephant :
ic(tfvo>7ro9 €X€^s 'IvStKos o\)K dXtyi^eiy wherein the huge size and the
harmlessness of the creature are connoted.

The Greek irCOrfKos, monkey or ape, is not held in high esteem. (Cf.
Archil. 82, 84 ; Aristot. Ifist. Anim, II, 81.) The word irCB-qKo^ is
employed by Aristophanes {Acharn, 907 ; Av, 441 ; Ran, 708) to
denote a trickster or jackanapes. In the proverbs, vCOtjko^ is a mis-
chievous, wily creature, a fauner, an imitator ; characteristics of irCOrj'
Kos in proverbs resemble those of 5vos. There appear no references
to the ape's physical resemblance to man nor any reference to monkey
intelligence. In general, the monkey or ape occupied a low position
in the Greek world of animals. The animal figures in eleven of the

fables of Aesop ; we may judge, therefore, that the monkey early
attracted notice by reason of its peculiar ways. It is natural that a
creature of such striking characteristics should have played a leading
role in fable and proverb.

Among the more familiar proverbs of the monkey are : ycpoiv vCOrf
Kos o*x oAib-KCToi, an old age proverb and clearly a variant of the
proverb of the old fox. The monkey becomes more clever with old
age. The saying : mOrfKo^ 6 mOrfKo^ k6,v xpvo-a IxjycrovSaXa is another
proverb of the impossible, for an animal cannot change its nature.
So the claw betrays the lion ; the bushy tail the fox. The following
proverbs are allied to this one : vwo rg \€ovry vCOrfKov vttootcAAciv —
iao Kol Xcwv otrtf xpV *"" viOtjko^ iv fjL€p€i. So too the saying : iriOrfKos
iv irop^v^ wherein we see the ape exalted beyond its due. The bad,
even if attired in beautiful raiment, nevertheless disclose their natural
characteristics. As a fable source of the proverbs of the imitative
monkey may be mentioned the fable of mSrfKoi 6pxn<rT(u (Aeso^y Halm
360, and cf. Lucian Piscator 36.) In the proverbs ape and wolf char-
acteristics are sometimes confused. This indicates that viOrfKos sym-
bolized trickery and deceit ; in general, however, the ape is the animal
type of imitativeness. Other proverbs of Trt^icos are : mOr/Ko^ Sfufni-
Kas (TiTovfitvo^ — irtft;ic<p TTOTToXov — KoXaK€VTiK(OT€p<K IT., all of whlch give
evidence of the low opinion of the animal in the mind of the ancient
Greek, rpaytxos mOr/Ko^ is a proverb of those exalted above their due.
(Cf. Demosth. 307, 25, where Aeschines is called : avrorpayiKo^

Members of the swine family were common in Greek lands, both in
the wild and in the domestic state. Coins of Phocis and of Locris
show images of xairposor vs. (Cf. Whibley op, cit.j p. 24.) Aesop has
but one fable of Kavpo^ and but three of v s ; in proverbs v s figures not
very frequently, about ten proverbs appearing in the collections. These
facts lead us to conclude that the pig was not a favorite animal among
the Greeks. The appearance of the pig in proverb is very infrequent in
comparison with the other familiar domestic animals : dog, horse,
ass, ox.

Characteristics of the Greek pig are the same as we notice today,
which have become proverbial with us in later times : filthiness, wit-
lessness, violence when roused. As in the case of other animals

there existed proverbs of the pig out of its proper sphere, proverbs of
fable origin, proverbs of the pig of local condition, and metaphorical
usages of the pig.

In illustration the following proverbs may be mentioned : J s ^v fiop-
P6pif tXvo-TTarai and iT 9 Xova'afihr/f €19 KvXio'/ia Popfiopov. These are both
indicative of the filthiness of the sow. The latter is reminiscent of
the dog-and-vomit proverb. The characteristics of the pig here indi-
cated, place the animal among the very lowest in moral significance.
For this reason the proverbs : v s 8ta pohtav and v s ckw^o-cv, are very
important, since they show the pig out of its proper sphere. These
proverbs were applied to the uneducated when appearing among
the cultured. (Cf. dog-among-roses and ass-in-perfume proverbs.
These two animals are often found confused or merged in animal
proverbs of incongruity.) A proverb of pig stupidity is the saying :
vs viro poiraXov SpafictToi, used with reference to those who incur acci-
dent through their own witlessness. (Cf. goat-and-knife and ox-and
halter proverbs). In the well known saying : Botcorui v s, the pig is again
the symbol of stupidity.

From fable or traditional sources two v s proverbs are of. interest :
vs ttot' *A$rfvaiav ipiv ijpiacv and *kffipoZCn(i vv riBvKfv, Of these the
former appears in Theokritos (V. 23, Ahrens.) The remarks of the
scholiast show that " the proverb, in the form : vs &v irpo% 'AOrjvav
cptfcis, was applied to those who sought to measure themselves with
their betters." The proverb is one of incongruity and the low char-
acter of us is made even more manifest by comparison with the god-
dess. Leutsch (n. on Apostol. XVII, 75), notes that this remark was
the final fling of Demades at Demosthenes (v. Plut. Demos, 11, 851.)
The latter of these two proverbs is derived from Aesop's fable (Halm
408) of us and kvwv contending in strife, the former maintaining that
Aphrodite loves her better than she loves the dog. (Cf. Strabo IX,
5, 17 ; Eustath. ad Homer, IL XIX, 251.)

BIRDS IN THE PROVERBS

Of the principal birds in the proverbs of the Greeks, the eagle, the
owl, the raven, the partridge, the crane and the cock are of most fre-
quent occurrence. The proverb-birds are for the most part wild ; the
cock is the most conspicuous domestic bird. In number of proverbs,
the eagle and the owl are in the lead. The eagle is the bird of Zeus;
the owl is the bird of Athena ; the cock is a "foreign bird "; the crane
is celebrated in Homer in combat with the pygmies ; the swan is the
songless bird ; the raven is a talking bird. These birds all figure
conspicuously in the fables of Aesop ; there are eleven fables of the
eagle, five of the crane, three of the owl, eight of the cock, eleven of
the raven and four of the partridge.

'ACTOS.

The eagle heads the list of the birds in Greek proverbs. He is the
symbol of that which is regal, lordly, of loftiness of spirit ; he stoops
to nothing which is low or insignificant. The eagle inspires the rest
of the bird kingdom with awe ; he is a cause of terror also to some
members of the animal world. Most of the Greek eagle proverbs
have their origin in the observation of the outward characteristics and
natural habits of the bird.

In illustration may be mentioned the following important eagle
proverbs : dtrov ivraaOaL SiSao-xetg. This is a proverb of absurdity,
similar to the proverbs of teaching a dolphin to swim, or a horse to
run in the field, and its application is the same as for those proverbs.
The eagle is an adept at flying ; he is a most powerful bird and flies
far aloft. So in the fables (Aesop, Halm 4, 5 and 8) he is repre-
sented as frequenting the lofty rocks or trees and circling the heavens.
dcTov KavSapos ftatcucrat is a proverb used with reference to those who
suffer ills at the hands of their inferiors, or to those who punish ene-
mies greater than themselves. The beetle in the proverb is typical
of paltriness. As in other contrasting animal proverbs the eagle as
type of size and strength is enhanced by the comparison. (For the
use of the phrase in Aristophanes may be compared Zys, 695 and
JPax 1 30, with schol. and interpr.) The fable source is Aesop (Halm
7) wherein the beetle takes vengeance upon the eagle for not regard-
ing the hare as suppliant to him, and contrives to have the eagle's
eggs broken in the lap of Zeus.

In the proverb derbv Koptavfj ^pco-xeXct we see the eagle again in
difficulty, and the enmity of the raven for the eagle reminds one of
the modern kingbird in pursuit of the crow. Proverbs of the flight
of eagles are next in order : dcros iv v€<^€Xats is the most significant.
It is a proverb of the eagle in its natural domain ; the application of
the proverb, however, is upon those who strive for something beyond
their reach. The eagle is a high-flying bird and one hard to capture.
(Cf. Aristoph. £g. 1013 ; Av, 979.) Related proverbs are : dcros
OpLwa^ 6p<ov — dcros iv Koirpiq. o^x tTTarat — i,€T6^ fivCa^ oi Orjptvu, all of
which display the eagle characteristic of loftiness of spirit. The fear
with which the eagle inspires other birds may be seen in the proverb:
eU fivpCov^ opviOa^ deros aofiel. The application of such a saying would
be upon those who are worthless in comparison with the great ; the
eagle in the proverb is typical of strength and power. That the birds
feared their king is brought out in the proverb : vrepov dcrov, wrepols
d\X<ov /uuyvvcts. Even the eagle's wing inspired dread. The proverb
of the eagle as the bird of Zeus, Zcvs ^erov elkero, was applied to those
who chose that which was of advantage to them. As the anthropo-
morphic creators of their gods, the Greeks chose appropriate attri-
butes for deities. Significant is the choice of the eagle, the king of
birds, for Zeus, king of gods and men. One old age proverb of the eagle
is found : dcrov yijpai KopvBov vcori/s, an eagle grown old is better than
any other younger bird. (Cf. old age proverbs of ox, horse, fox, lion
and monkey for similar and opposite views.) Reference is had also
to the longevity ascribed to the eagle.

'AXcicrpvolv.
To the Greek the cock, dXcxTpvwv, was an amusing bird. His out-
ward characteristics were peculiar and therefore sufficiently noticea-
ble to become material for proverbial saying. The cock's native pug-
nacity was the particular cause for his being looked upon as amusing.
The principal traits of the cock which are noted in Greek proverbs
are those which the bird exhibited in fight. These include pugnacity,
a sense of victory if he wins, a show of dejection if he is defeated,
and so the cock can hardly be said to have been very highly regarded
by the Greek. In fable the cock plays a similar role ; he figures in
eight of the more important fables of Aesop. An equal number of
proverbs in which the cock appears is found in the collections. Lucian,
Fiscator 34, characterizes the cock best in the phrase : ^^XovtUrtpa^

Ttov iXcKTpvoviav. The proverb : dXexrpvcov iirnrrfS^ (Eras. p. 692) is
used when one is worsted in a struggle but still persists in renewing
the fight, illustrating a very familiar characteristic of the bird. An-
other reference to cock fighting is Aristoph. Av, 70 : -qTrrfB-q^ rtvos
aXtKTpvovoi ; As a proverb, Apostolius (VIII, 70) comments that it
was used of servants. A similar reference is Aristoph. Vesp, 1490,
where irrijo-o-ct Opvvt;(09 <os rts dX^KTiap refers to the dejected ap-
pearance of the cock that has failed to come off victor in
the contest. The proverb dXcKrpvovtov fi€fi<l>€<r$ai Koikuiv is applied to
those who are lavish in their living, and is derived from a belief that
the cock consumed immediately what he ate.

Tcpavos.

The principal crane proverb is concerned with the tradition that
cranes carry stones. There are two forms of the proverb : yipavoi
kiOov^ ^cpovo-tv and ye/oavoi XCOovs KaTaweirTtaKviai. Five crane fables
are found in Aesop (Halm 34, 93, 226b, 397, 421.) The tradition
regarding the crane carrying stones has two forms : one that the
cranes carry the stones and drop them at intervals to ascertain whether
there is ground suitable for alighting, or water ; the other, that the
crane carries the stone for ballast in their flight (v. Maxim. Tyr., I?iss,
I, 12 P. 214R). The saying: yipavoi \C$ov^ KaraTrewTtaKvtaL is found
in Aristophanes Av, 1137. The proverb is applied to those who
practice foresight and precaution, an application derived from either
form of the tradition.

Another important crane proverb is : at *ipvKov yipavoi, which is
derived from the story that Ibykos, having been captured by brigands,
and seeing a flock of cranes fly overhead, called them to witness his
unfortunate situation. Some time after the brigands, in a theatre in
Corinth, seeing cranes, uttered the phrase, at 'I^vkov yipavoi, where-
upon they were immediately seized and punished. The saying was
therefore applied to those who were punished unexpectedly (Macar.
I, 50). Thus the cranes of Ibykos are proverbial in Greek for divine
interposition in the revealing of crime. That cranes were witnesses
of the murder of the poet, Welcker (Die kraniche des Ibykos, KL
Schrift. 8, 89 f and i, 220 f) believes is indicative of the popular fancy
that birds were, in their capacity as inhabitants of the air, helpers of
the gods in the punishment of crime. In general, the legend is veiled
in mist and uncertainty (v. Sm)rth, Melic Poets, p. 270.)

TXavi.

References to the owl in the Greek proverbs do not imply that she
was the bird of Athena, nor of wisdom. She appears usually in the
proverbs as a bird of good omen, a bird very common in Athens, a
bird figuring on Athenian coins. The generic name for owl in Greek
is yXavi. Homer's owl is <rK<o^. Aristot. (Ifisf, Anim,, VIII, 3, 2)
includes fivas, iXtos, aiycoXtos in the owl group. Fables of the owl are
few in number, three appearing in the fables of Aesop. (Halm 105,
106, 200.) Proverbs of the owl seem at first sight to be numerous,
but they resolve themselves into six sayings which may be termed
proverbial.

There are several varieties of the owl-in- Athens proverb : yXavK*
*A$rjvai€ — yXav^ us *A^vas — yXavKa 'A^miois — yXavi iv ttoXci. These
are all proverbs of the coals-to-Newcastle type, and imply that owls
are abundant in Athens. This may refer to the birds themselves, in
that they were no rarity there, or it may refer to the coins stamped
with the owl emblem. (Cf. Aristoph. Av, 301 : ti ^lys; rts yXavK*
'A^mi' ifyaycv / and schol.) The proverb : yXav^ iv ttoXc* is similar
to the ox-in-city proverb in referring to Athenian coinage. So
likewise the saying : yXavxcg AavpnariKaC, since the silver mines of
Attica were at Laurion. (Cf. Herodot. VII, 144; Thucyd. II, 55.)
Aristophanes employs the phrase : yXavxcs v/aSs ovwot^ ^iriXct^ovo-t
AavpenoTiKai (Av, 1106, where v. schol.) The proverb : yXav^ yap vpMv
vplv fjidxta-^ Tov arparov StcTTTaro, or simply, yXav^ BUTrraro (v. Aris-
toph. Fesp, 1086) shows the owl as a bird of good omen. So too the
saying : yXav^ twrarai, since such a flight was considered a harbinger
of victory to the Athenians. (Cf. schol. ad. Aristoph. Eg. 1093,
where the owl is termed the sacred bird of Athens, residing at Laurion,
harbinger of victory, emblem of Athenian coinage.) Three owl prov-
erbs of a different character are : 5XXo yXav^, aXXo Koptov^ 4>BtyytTajL
— airtp rriv yXavica B-qpav — li<i) yXavxcg. Of these, the first was a say-
ing applied to those who were not harmonious ; the second to those
who sought something of little or no value, thus a slightly unfavorable
view of the owl is seen ; the third is of obscure or doubtful signifi-
cance.

The three birds, Kopaij Kopiavrf and icoXotos, which may be rendered
raven, crow and daw, are by no means strangers to the proverbs.
Probably the most important proverb is : xoXotos irorl icoXotov, which

has come down to us in the form : birds of a feather flock together.
To this is related the phrase : ifXi^ ifXtica rcpirct. Of frequent occur-
rence is the phrase : h xo/oaicas, which shows at once a rather unfa-
vorable view of these birds. Aesop's fable (Halm 201) of the daw
that despised its mates and went over to the crows ; the latter not
receiving him he returned to the daws only to be told to betake him-
self to the crows again, since he had chosen his own associates, gives
the origin of the proverb. The significance of a curse in the proverb
is of later origin. "To the crows," however, came to signify, to de-
struction, to outer darkness and the like. This notion naturally arises
from the crow's being a bird of carrion, (v. Aristot. Ifisf, Anim, IX, 31.)
The notion of a curse arose from the fact that a body left for the
crows was of course unburied. The phrase is common to the lan-
guage of less exalted literature, and so is frequent in Aristophanes,
e. g. Vesp, 852, 982 ; Nub, 133 ; Pax 500, 122 1, etc.) The prov-
erb : XcvKos Kopai is a saying of the impossible. Apollo directed the
Boeotians to settle where they saw white crows, (v. Photius, s. v.
€s KopaKas) Aristot. Ifist, Anim, III, 12, i, mentions white crows. A
famous proverb connected with kqviv <^v(r^s and Xcovra vvco-cts is
Koptavrj rov (TKopirCov (rjpiraxrtv). Other proverbs in which these birds
figure are : Kopai vSpcvci — xopaiccs dLi;8ova>v dLt8€(nfi(tfr€pot and icaxov

KOpaKO^ KaKov <pov.

The general view of these birds gathered from proverbs is that
they were by no means held in high repute ; they were primarily birds
of carrion. No mention of the utterance of speech by the Greek
birds of this group appears in the proverbs.

K.VKVOS.

The swan song is the burden of the Greek proverbs in which this
bird figures. These forms are found : kvkv€lov t^afia and m/icvctov
/LieXo9. Apostolius (XVI, 84) gives also : tot^ ^-o-ovrat m/xvot, orav
KoXotot (TtwTnyo-oMrt. The sayings were applied to those who were near
death, for swans sing only when they are dying.

nipSit
The two birds, Sprvi and vipSii, are closely identified ; few prov-
erbs of these birds appear. The saying : Bprvi Itnatrt 'HpaicX^v rov
icaprcpov, appears in several forms. The story source of this proverb
is that Herakles was slain by the Typhon, and lolaos was unable to

i'estore him to life until he burned alive the quail, in which Herakle^
delighted, whereupon the demigod was restored. The proverb was
used with reference to those who were saved by some unexpected
means.

From the proverbs of the partridge it is seen that the bird was re-
garded as roguish, vehement in love, without voice, timid. Four
proverbs illustrate these views : wipSii £<pov wavovpyov, of those clever
to escape ; TrcpSiicos €p<f aov Bpifivrtpovt of those who love to excess ;
d^covorepos ircpStKos, in which the bird is regarded as without voice ;
0^8' aiSovs o-oi 7rcpSiico9, of the cowardly.

Ilepio-repa.

Both irtpicrrtpa and rpvyiov are found in proverbial sayings. The
dove is symbolic of mildness ; the turtle-dove is a prattler, and is
furthermore typical of those whose life is laborious. The proverbs
which may be said to illustrate these views are the following : rpvyovo^
XoA.io'repo?^ — irovrjpb. Kara rpvydva i/raAAci? — irpaortpo^ iripurr^pas —
^ctTTttv avrl TTtpicrrtpds, wherein the dove represents a true bride, and
^eiTTa, the wood-pigeon or ring-dove, stands for a courtesan.

I So Eustath., cut Horn, 11.^ 1, 311, p. 751, 13, shows rpvl^tiv equivalent to iroXvXa-
ye?v or TToXv^covciv. Menander (Meineke, ofi, di., p. 148) recalls the proverbial com-
parison in his nXo KI09.

6q
REPTILES AND INSECTS.

Of reptiles and insects in the Greek proverbs, the tortoise atid the
cicala figure most conspicuously. There are also numerous
proverbs of the crab, the scorpion, the frog, the snake, the ant, the
bee. All of these were noticed because of their individual character-
istics. In this group proverbs of fidrpaxos^ KapKtVos, o^ts, orico/jTrtos,
XcXwn;, /xc\to-o-a, /xvpfArfi and rcTTti, will be Studied with a view to
showing the moral significance, if any, of these creatures.

Barpaxo9.
Proverbs of the frog are comparatively few ; this is surprising, since
the frog is no stranger to fable and other ranges of literature. Aesop
has ten fables of the frog. No special characteristics are accorded
the frog in the proverbs, however, but the creature's natural habits of
life are brought out. So in the proverb : v Scop Trtvctv ^ar/oaxos, a very
frog for drinking water, is seen reference to the proper habitat and
life of the frog. This is made clear also in the proverb : fiarpax^
vSiap Kal o-Tcap yaX^, a proverb of those who give to others that in
which they especially delight. Incongruity appears in the proverb :
^arpaixois oivoxoctv, since to pour wine for frogs would be utter non-
sense. This proverb is used of those who give to others what they
do not desire, a very typical "coals to Newcastle" proverb of the
ancient Greek. The proverb : fidrpaxo^ Sepi^io? is one of local tradi-
tion. While the frog was usually regarded as a singing creature, the
Seriphian frog was voiceless by reason of the chilliness of the element
in which it lived.

KapKivos.

More interesting is the proverbial crab. Characteristics of this
creature are principally those of natural habit and outward appear-
ance. Proverbs involving the crab and the tortoise are found, in
which identically the same characteristics are exhibited. Both are
hard-shelled, slow-moving reptiles ; hence the similarity of attributed
traits in the proverbs. Even the famous hare-and-tortoise fable with
its derivative proverbs becomes the story of the crab-and-the-hare.
Reference to the crab's mode of walking also became proverbial —
the peculiar sidewise motion as well as the slowness of movement.
Illustrative proverbs include the following : icapKiVos Xaymov aipet and

KapKivov 8ao"v7ro8t (TvyKptVcts, which are the same as hare-and-tortoise
proverbs ; KapKivov iroptCa and ovrt tov KapKivov opOa jSaSii^civ SiSo^cis
(Aristoph. Pax 1083 : ovwot€ ttoi^o-cis tov KapKivov opOa jSaStfctv) refer
to the sidewise motion of the crab in walking. (Cf . Aesop, Halm
187.)

The snake, though not figuring infrequently in metaphor and com-
parison, is not conspicuous in the proverbs. Hatred of the snake and
its natural wickedness are the source of proverbial sayings. Both
o^ts-and SpaKtav appear in proverb. Conspicuous is the proverb of
rearing a serpent : o^tv Tp€<l>€iv. This phrase is derived from the
well known fable of Aesop of the rustic who found a serpent in the
winter time almost dead with the cold, brought the creature within
doors and warmed it near his hearth and in his bosom. As soon as
the serpent was fully warmed it recovered its former nature and re-
warded his benefactor by biting him. The farmer, dying, said : I
have suffered justly, for I took pity on the wicked. (Halm 95, 97.)
The proverb, then, is a compressed fable, and shows the serpent the
most untrustworthy and treacherous of all creatures, since it bites the
hand that saves it ; no mercy should be shown the snake. Erasmus
gives a related proverb : o^tv iv r^ Kok-n-t^ ^(iXttciv, also o^tv ^aXwcts, a
proverb applied to a father who is rearing a wicked son ; the phrase
was also used of one who loved a mistress to his hurt. The proverb :
o^€a)9 o/x/xa, serpent's eye, is used of those who look keenly and in-
tently ; a proverb of animal metaphor derived from the method in
which a snake "charms" its prey. Proverbs relating to the sloughing
of the snake's outer skin are also familiar : K€voT€pos kefirfpiSos — yvfi-
vortpo^ kcfirfpi^o^ — rv^Xdr€/oos A.e^i//oi^3os. (Cf. Aristoph., Jr, 102 ;
Meineke, Com, frag, II, 2, 782.)

Sko/ottio?.
The scorpion in Greek proverbs is best known from those sayings,
found in several forms, which treat of the "scorpion under the stone."
Two fables of Aesop (Halm 350 and 350 b) represent the scorpion
as dangerous. The proverb : vtto iravri XCBta a-Kopvios KaOcvSci, be-
.neath every stone sleeps a scorpion (var. ^vXao-o-ci— ^/oov/oct) was ap-
plied to the knavish, those of evil habit and those given to strife. It

is found in a fragment of Sophocles (Dind. 35) cv Travrl crKopirio^ XCdio,
(Cf. Aristoph., Thesm, 529.) To rouse a scorpion, crKopvCov oKrairow
dvcyctpcis, was to goad someone on to blows. 'Avrt wipKrfs a-Kopirtov is
a proverb of giving something undesirable, and those who choose the
worse course in preference to the better. One who had an easily
roused temper was said to have eaten scorpions, (TKopiriov^ piPpiOKt.
For Kopvtvrf rbv cKopwiov, v. Kopai supra,

XcXfon;.
Characteristics of the tortoise in Greek proverbs are these : hard-
ness and thickness of shell, slowness of gait, insensibility, certain ani-
mal traits and a peculiar jealous prizing of its shell. The question of
eating tortoise also appears in the proverbs. In Aristoph. Vesp, 429
and 1292, the tortoise is represented as exulting in its shell, highly
prized : ^/x' cyco rot? x^<^^^^ funcapietv o-c rot) Scp/xaro? and lo) ytkiixvax

fULKOpUU rOV BtpflOTO^.

In connection with these sayings may be mentioned the proverb :
irapk xcX<tfn7$ SarpaKov, applied to those who do not share what they
have with others, since the tortoise does not willingly yield its shell.
The thickness of the tortoise shell is implied in the proverb : x^^**''^
fAvmv, said of those who are heedless. So Julian (£ptsf. 59) writes :
"Agamemnon paid no more heed to Thersites' license of tongue
than a tortoise notices flies." (Apostol. XVIII, 19). The story of the
hare-and-the-tortoise appears again in connection with x^A-wny prov-
erbs. So the • proverb : irportpov \tXiavri TrapaSpa/xtlTai SaorvwoSa sug-
gests the hare proverbs, which have already been discussed. (Cf.
Xaym supra.) The characteristic slowness of the tortoise is apparent
in the proverb, as also in \tXiavrfv Iliyyao-a) avyKpCvcis. (Cf . KapKivov Sacrv-
TToSi trvyKpivtii), in which the comparison with Pegasus makes
even more strikingly obvious the slow movement of the tortoise
in proverb and fable. The proverb : ojSoAos KaXAtxcA-wvos had
reference to the figure of a tortoise engraved upon a coin current in
Aegina and also in the Peloponnesos. (Cf. Hesych. Pollux 9, 74.)
Tortoise traits are seen in the proverbs : Svcrpiyorepo^ x^*^^^ ^^^
o^ icat x<A,o>v«u Sea fuas waa-ai vX&u, the latter phrase having reference
to a belief that "when one tortoise drank the others drank through its
tail." (App. Prow, IV, 43.) The question of eating tortoise appears
in the proverbs : a^oi x<^<^va$ icrOUrc ohrtp eiXcre (var. eiTrep cTxcrc),
and rj Sci ;^cX(ain;9 icpca ^yetv rj firf ffniytiv, Froni these proverbs the

tortoise seems not to have been regarded as a creature desirable for
food. According to one story (Diogen. I. 36), the first proverb was
the reply of Hermes to fishermen who invited him to partake of tor-
toise ; another story (Zenob. II, 29) attributes the reply to compan-
ions of the fishermen, who did not wish to eat tortoise. The idea in
the proverbs is similar to "you have made your own bed and you
must lie in it." According to Apostolius (VIII, 42) a little tortoise
meat eaten caused colic ; much, a purge ; whence eating tortoise was
regarded as possible but dangerous. The proverb : 'SjSv (or fj Sci)
XcX(i)vi79 K/oea ^ayeiv 17 fAtf <^y€tv was applied to the vacillating.

Mc^KTcra.
With us the busy bee is as proverbial as the provident ant. From
Greek proverbs the bee, the wasp and the bumble bee are not absent.
(Cf. o-^^i ^o/xpSiv T€TTtyos havrCov infra?) The bumble bee does not
produce honey, whence the metaphor, ^o/xj8vA.tos SLvSpwro^ (Zenob.
II, 8b), used of the barren or fruitless. Of the bee proper a most
common proverbial saying was : cis /xcXtWas Utifwxraq, (Cf . vs iKwfMLcr€
supra,) This saying was used of those who suffered beyond expecta-
tion. It is derived from the natural characteristics of the bee, since
when roused it will sting its assailant. The significant idea in the
proverb : /xiySc /xcXt firjSk /xcXtWas is that it is impossible to have the
sweetness of the honey without the sting of the bee. The saying was
applied, therefore, to those who were not willing to experience a good
thing by reason of the risk involved. Two other proverbs of the
bee may be mentioned : dypCa /4,c\i(r(ra and /ua fxiXuro'a /xc\.i oi ttoici.
The former was a phrase applied to those who were wild and rude,
thus showing no high regard for the bee. Hesychius (s. v. dypi/xcXuro-a)
says that Hegesias was so called. (Cf. Macar. I, 24.) The latter of
the two proverbs is but another form of the spring-and-swallow
proverb, and the two were combined into: fiCa x^^^v lap oi
iro4ct oifSk fAia ixtkurtra /xcXi. (v. Greg. Cypr. Leiden, II, 71.) Neither
of the preceding proverbs manifests a high regard for the honey-
bee on the part of the Greeks ; there is no reference to the "busy-bee'*
in these sayings, nor does the phrase appear to have been proverbial
with the Greek. The proverbs of /xcXto-o-a are derived from natural
characteristics, honey and the sting being most noticeable.

The ant does not play a very conspicuous part in the Greek prov-
erbs. The collections in the Corpus show three forms of ant prov-

erb. Erasmus gives two others of distinct form. Aesop has five
fables of the ant (Halm 294, 295, 296, 401, 401 b.) Of the proverbs
mentioned by Erasmus /xvpfuxKt 8c fivpfmi is the latter half of a verse
from Theokritos (///. IX, 31), in which the cicala also appears :
rirrii fikv Tcrrtyi ^tXos. This is a proverb of the ^Xii rjXiKa ripirti
type. There is no special reference to the moral significance in this
proverb, since all creatures prefer their own kind. A more signifi-
cant ant proverb is li^eom icav /xvp/Aiyxt xoXriy there is gall or bile even
in an ant. The gall or bile represents anger or resentment, and the
proverb is an exhortation not to despise that which is small. Diogeni-
anus (IV, 48) compares the saying : aypoUov firj Kara^povct prjTopoq,
Apostolius (VIII, 25) adds : ev t<u dft^io-^iyTctv, and compares: c^^i
KoX rf fivia airXrjva kol xoXrfv 17 fivpfirji. So too the proverb : cort k&v
fAvpfi'^KL KoX <r€/5<^<j»xoA.i7, even the gnat has its sting, is of similar sig-
nificance. In all these sayings the ant figures as a tiny creature, and
the teaching of the proverbs is that even a diminutive ant is not to be
despised. This idea is manifest again in the comparison proverb :
^ ixvp/irji ^ Kaixrjkos, used of those given to exaggeration. The camel
has been shown to be typical of size in Greek proverbs. In the prov-
erb : dyaOSiv p.vpp.-qKui the ant-hill is used as a metaphor for abundance
of good things ; there is an indirect reference here to the toilsome-
ness of the ant. Eustathius {ad Horn. IL A, 178, p. 77, 9) cites the
use of fivpfirfKc^ dvdpiOfAoi for an abundance of people.

T^Tti.

Far more conspicuous than all other insects in the Greek proverbs
is the cicala. It was regarded at Athens as a symbol of autochthony;
its chirp was a pleasing sound in Athenian ears ; it was not consid-
ered a frugal or provident insect, but was given rather to idleness,
passing the summer in discoursing music ; it was a symbol of gar-
rulity ; it was typical of independence ; as an article of food the cicala
was not held in high repute.

These several characteristics may be gathered from fables and
proverbs as follows : Tcrrtyt fiikirrav (rvyKpiv€i^; This is a proverb used
of those comparing the less with the greater. (Cf. adXov (raXwiyyi avy-
ic/otv€ts.) The cicala was pleasing to the Greeks because of its chirping,
and was frequently employed by the poets in figures relating to sweet
sounds. (Cf. Hom. //. Ill, 191; Hes. Op. 580; Simon. 164; 174.) In
comparison with the bee the cicala has a pleasing chirp ; the bee has

J
1

a disagreeable buzz or is almost mute. (Cf. Aesop, Halm 399, 401 b).
Other proverbs of the singing cicala include : rcTTtyos dKow — rcTTiyos
€v^(iivor€po$ — 01 filv rcrriyes fiovo'iKoC^ ot 3c KO)(\iai d<f>Q)voi. Of these
the first shows the pleasure which the chirping of the cicala afforded
the Greek listener ; the second, sweeter voiced than a cicala, is a
proverb of those who sing sweetly, and those who received this com-
pliment were lauded highly, for the Muses themselves were believed
to have given the musical voice to the insect. (Cf. Apostol. XVI,
37 ; Plato, Phctedr, 259 C; Theokrit. Id, I, 148.) Erasmus (p. 276)
applies the proverb to the garrulous as well as to the musical. Other
proverbs involving the cicala as a type of garrulity are : XoXer rm^
and rirrii xcXaSct, which introduce an additional phase in which the
cicala is regarded. So too in the proverb : TCTTiyos AoXio-rcpos, and
in the saying : rcTTtyos ^%wf vofiov, applied to that which is worthless.
In the proverb : cnfirii Pofipiov rirriyos ivavrCov the buzzing wasp is
contrasted with the singing cicala ; this is a proverb of the ill-matched;
the cicala is held in high regard here. (v. Theokrit.. V, 29.) Two other
proverbs of the singing cicala are : 01 Tcwycs kavroh xa/xo^cv faovrai,
and TCTTiycs xafioOev ^ISovo-tv. The saying : rerriyo^o/oas tt refers to
the custom among the Athenians before Solon's time of wearing a
golden cicala, that is, a pin in the form of a cicala as a symbol of the
Athenians' claim to be autochtonous. Hence the proverb : TCTTtyoiv
dvoficorroi refers to this custom, and signifies old-fashioned notions.
So in Aristoph. JVud. 984 : dpxo-'^ y* «a* AuiroXtto&y koI rtrriytav dva-
futrraj the significance is "full of old-fashioned notions."

With reference to the cicala as an article of food, a saying : tctti-
yos eo^uis is found. That the Greeks ate the larvae of the cicala
Aristotle, Ifist, Anim, V, 30, 5, is witness.

In the proverb : rerTiyos rpowov, the cicala's way (Apostolius XVI,
36), improvidence is ascribed to the insect. The proverb is of fable
origin and may be traced to Aesop's fable (Halm 401) of the cicalae
and the ants. In the winter the ants had an abundance of food
which they had stored up ; the cicalae had none, and were forced to
beg of the ants. "Why did you not store up food for the winter ?"
asked the ants. " We were discoursing sweet music in the summer-
time," replied the others. The ants retort : "If you play the pipes
in summer you will have to dance in the winter." The cicala here is
symbolical of the indolent and improvident. " They who dance must
pay the piper."

LIFE.

Herbert Pierrepont Houghton was bom at Brooklyn, N. Y.
January 22, 1880. He removed in 1883 to Stamford, Conn.
He prepared for college at the Stamford High School ; entered Am
herst College 1897 and was graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1901
From 1 90 1 to 1903 he was Instructor in German and the Classic
languages at Chestnut Hill Academy, Philadelphia. In 1903 he e»
tered the Johns Hopkins University, where he pursued gradua
courses in Greek, Latin and Sanskrit for four years, under the dir
tion of Professors Gildersleeve, Smith and Bloomfield ; Miller, Wils
and Robinson. To each one of these teachers, and especially
Professor Gildersleeve, he acknowledges a lasting indebtedness. I
was Scholar in Greek 1904-05, and'' University Fellow in Gre
1905-07.

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